08 August 2011
Cherokee-American wars
The Cherokee-American wars (also known as the Chickamauga Wars and Dragging Canoe's War) were a series of
back-and-forth raids, campaigns, ambushes, minor skirmishes, and several
full-scale battles in the Old Southwest
from 1776 to 1794 between the Cherokee (Ani-Yunwiya, Tsalagi) and the Americans on the
frontier. While their fight stretched
across the entire period, there were times, sometimes ranging over several
months, of little or no action.
back-and-forth raids, campaigns, ambushes, minor skirmishes, and several
full-scale battles in the Old Southwest
from 1776 to 1794 between the Cherokee (Ani-Yunwiya, Tsalagi) and the Americans on the
frontier. While their fight stretched
across the entire period, there were times, sometimes ranging over several
months, of little or no action.
The Cherokee leader Dragging Canoe, whom some historians call “the Savage
Napoleon”, and his warriors fought
alongside and in conjunction with Indians from a number of other tribes both in
the Old Southwest and in the Old Northwest, most often the Creek or Muscogee (Muskokulke) in the
former and the Shawnee (Saawanwa) in the latter. During the Revolution, they also fought
alongside British troops, Loyalist militia, and the King’s Carolina Rangers.
Napoleon”, and his warriors fought
alongside and in conjunction with Indians from a number of other tribes both in
the Old Southwest and in the Old Northwest, most often the Creek or Muscogee (Muskokulke) in the
former and the Shawnee (Saawanwa) in the latter. During the Revolution, they also fought
alongside British troops, Loyalist militia, and the King’s Carolina Rangers.
Open warfare broke out in summer 1776 along the
frontier of the Watauga, Holston, Nolichucky, and Doe Rivers in East Tennessee,
as well as the province (later states) of Virginia, North Carolina,
South Carolina, and Georgia. It later spread to those along the
Cumberland River in Middle Tennessee and in Kentucky.
frontier of the Watauga, Holston, Nolichucky, and Doe Rivers in East Tennessee,
as well as the province (later states) of Virginia, North Carolina,
South Carolina, and Georgia. It later spread to those along the
Cumberland River in Middle Tennessee and in Kentucky.
The wars of the Cherokee and the Americans divide into
two phases.
two phases.
In the first phase, lasting 1776-1783, they also
fought as allies of the Kingdom of Great
Britain against its rebellious colonies.
This first part of this phase, from summer 1776 to summer of 1777,
involved the all sections of the entire Cherokee nation, and is often referred
to as the “Cherokee War of 1776”.
fought as allies of the Kingdom of Great
Britain against its rebellious colonies.
This first part of this phase, from summer 1776 to summer of 1777,
involved the all sections of the entire Cherokee nation, and is often referred
to as the “Cherokee War of 1776”.
In the second phase, lasting 1783-1794, they also
served as proxies of the Viceroyalty of
New Spain against the new United States of America. Because of their relocation westward to new
homes initially known as the “Five Lower Towns”, they then became known as the
Lower Cherokee, a moniker which persisted well into the nineteenth
century. In 1786, the Lower Cherokee became founding members of the
Native Americans' Western Confederacy
organized by the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant, and took an active part
in the Northwest Indian War.
served as proxies of the Viceroyalty of
New Spain against the new United States of America. Because of their relocation westward to new
homes initially known as the “Five Lower Towns”, they then became known as the
Lower Cherokee, a moniker which persisted well into the nineteenth
century. In 1786, the Lower Cherokee became founding members of the
Native Americans' Western Confederacy
organized by the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant, and took an active part
in the Northwest Indian War.
The conflict in the Southwest ended in November 1794
with the Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse. The Northwest Indian War, in which the
Cherokee were also involved, ended with the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.
with the Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse. The Northwest Indian War, in which the
Cherokee were also involved, ended with the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.
Prelude
Since it’s beyond question that at the time of Spanish
contact in the 16th century the Appalachian region later held
by the Cherokee was then occupied by the Yuchi, it’s safe to state that the
Cherokee were relative newcomers to the area, much more recent than previously
thought. Ethnologist James Mooney reported that the last town of the
Cherokee living in the upper Ohio region was destroyed by the in 1708, with its
people driven south to join their fellow tribespeople. Add to this
information to the fact that one of the names of the Erie Nation,
adjacent to the Great Lake named for them, was Riquéronon, we have a good clue
of their true origin and that the reason for the migration was the Beaver
Wars of the 17th century.
contact in the 16th century the Appalachian region later held
by the Cherokee was then occupied by the Yuchi, it’s safe to state that the
Cherokee were relative newcomers to the area, much more recent than previously
thought. Ethnologist James Mooney reported that the last town of the
Cherokee living in the upper Ohio region was destroyed by the in 1708, with its
people driven south to join their fellow tribespeople. Add to this
information to the fact that one of the names of the Erie Nation,
adjacent to the Great Lake named for them, was Riquéronon, we have a good clue
of their true origin and that the reason for the migration was the Beaver
Wars of the 17th century.
While in the north, they were known to their Lenape
neighbors to the east, whom they themselves called the “Grandfathers”, as the
Talligewi (the uncorrupted original form of the name Allegheny). The
Lenape likewise referred to the whole basin of the Ohio River (“Alligewi Sipu”
in Lenape) as “Alligewinengk”.
neighbors to the east, whom they themselves called the “Grandfathers”, as the
Talligewi (the uncorrupted original form of the name Allegheny). The
Lenape likewise referred to the whole basin of the Ohio River (“Alligewi Sipu”
in Lenape) as “Alligewinengk”.
First interactions with Europeans
If Mooney is correct, the first contact and conflict
of the Cherokee with the British occurred in 1654 when a force from Jamestown
Settlement supported by a large party of Pamunkey attacked
a town of the “Rechaherians”. Although the English had about 600–700
Pamunkey warriors, the Cherokee drove them off. The same settlement
was recorded as “Rickohakan” German traveller James Lederer when he passed
through in 1670.
of the Cherokee with the British occurred in 1654 when a force from Jamestown
Settlement supported by a large party of Pamunkey attacked
a town of the “Rechaherians”. Although the English had about 600–700
Pamunkey warriors, the Cherokee drove them off. The same settlement
was recorded as “Rickohakan” German traveller James Lederer when he passed
through in 1670.
When the Province of Carolina first began trading with
the Cherokee in the late 17th century, their westernmost settlements were the
twin towns of Great Tellico (Talikwa Egwa) and Chatuga (Tsatugi)
at the current site of Tellico Plains, Tennessee.
the Cherokee in the late 17th century, their westernmost settlements were the
twin towns of Great Tellico (Talikwa Egwa) and Chatuga (Tsatugi)
at the current site of Tellico Plains, Tennessee.
After siding with the Province of South Carolina in
the Tuscarora War of 1711–1715, the Cherokee turned on their
erstwhile British allies in the Yamasee War of 1715–1717.
Midway, they turned against their former allies the Yamasee, which
ensured the latter's defeat.
the Tuscarora War of 1711–1715, the Cherokee turned on their
erstwhile British allies in the Yamasee War of 1715–1717.
Midway, they turned against their former allies the Yamasee, which
ensured the latter's defeat.
French and Indian War (1754–1763)
At the outbreak of the French and Indian War (1754–1763),
the Cherokee were staunch allies of the British, taking part in such far-flung
campaigns as those against the French at Fort Duquesne (at
modern-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) and the Shawnee of the Ohio
Country. In 1755, a band of Cherokee 130-strong under Ostenaco (Ustanakwa)
of Tomotley (Tamali) took up residence in a fortified town at the mouth
of the Ohio River at the behest of fellow British allies, the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee).
the Cherokee were staunch allies of the British, taking part in such far-flung
campaigns as those against the French at Fort Duquesne (at
modern-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania) and the Shawnee of the Ohio
Country. In 1755, a band of Cherokee 130-strong under Ostenaco (Ustanakwa)
of Tomotley (Tamali) took up residence in a fortified town at the mouth
of the Ohio River at the behest of fellow British allies, the Iroquois (Haudenosaunee).
Pro-French
in the Overhills
in the Overhills
For several years, French agents from Fort Toulouse had
been visiting the Overhill Cherokee, especially those on the Hiwassee and
Tellico Rivers, and had made in-roads into those places.
been visiting the Overhill Cherokee, especially those on the Hiwassee and
Tellico Rivers, and had made in-roads into those places.
The strongest pro-French sentiment among the Cherokee
came from Mankiller (Utsidihi) of Great Tellico (Talikwa),
Old Caesar of Chatuga (Tsatugi), and Raven (Kalanu) of Great
Hiwassee (Ayuhwasi Egwa).
Stalking Turkey (Kanagatucko; called 'Old Hop' by the whites),
the First Beloved Man (Uku) of the nation, was very pro-French, as was
his nephew Standing Turkey (Kunagadoga), who succeeded at his death in 1760.
came from Mankiller (Utsidihi) of Great Tellico (Talikwa),
Old Caesar of Chatuga (Tsatugi), and Raven (Kalanu) of Great
Hiwassee (Ayuhwasi Egwa).
Stalking Turkey (Kanagatucko; called 'Old Hop' by the whites),
the First Beloved Man (Uku) of the nation, was very pro-French, as was
his nephew Standing Turkey (Kunagadoga), who succeeded at his death in 1760.
Great Mortar
and Coosawattee
and Coosawattee
In 1759 a Creek contingent under the chief
named Great Mortar (Yayatustanage) occupied the former site
of Coosa. It had been long deserted since Spanish explorations in the 16th
century. He reoccupied the site in support of his pro-French Cherokee allies in
Great Tellico and Chatuga.
The occupation was also a step toward an alliance withnamed Great Mortar (Yayatustanage) occupied the former site
of Coosa. It had been long deserted since Spanish explorations in the 16th
century. He reoccupied the site in support of his pro-French Cherokee allies in
Great Tellico and Chatuga.
other Creek, Cherokee, Shawnee, Chickasaw (Chikashsha), and Catawba (Nieye)
warriors. His plans were the first of their kind in the South, and set the
stage for the alliances that Dragging Canoe would later build.
Anglo-Cherokee War (1758-1761)
The Anglo-Cherokee War was initiated in 1758 in the
midst of the French and Indian War by Moytoy (Amo-adawehi)
of Citico. He was retaliating for British and colonial mistreatment
of Cherokee warriors. The war lasted from 1758 to 1761.
midst of the French and Indian War by Moytoy (Amo-adawehi)
of Citico. He was retaliating for British and colonial mistreatment
of Cherokee warriors. The war lasted from 1758 to 1761.
During its course, Cherokee hostages were murdered
at Fort Prince George near
Keowee (Kiawiyi), and
other Cherokee massacred the garrison of Fort Loudoun near Chota (Itsati).
at Fort Prince George near
Keowee (Kiawiyi), and
other Cherokee massacred the garrison of Fort Loudoun near Chota (Itsati).
Those two connected events catapulted the whole
Cherokee nation into war until the fighting ended in 1761. The Cherokee were led by chiefs Oconostota (Aganstata)
of Chota (Itsati); Attakullakulla (Atagulgalu)
of Tennessee (Tanasi); Ostenaco of Tomotley; Wauhatchie (Wayatsi) of the
Lower Towns; and Round O of the Middle Towns.
Cherokee nation into war until the fighting ended in 1761. The Cherokee were led by chiefs Oconostota (Aganstata)
of Chota (Itsati); Attakullakulla (Atagulgalu)
of Tennessee (Tanasi); Ostenaco of Tomotley; Wauhatchie (Wayatsi) of the
Lower Towns; and Round O of the Middle Towns.
During the war, the British forces under general James
Grant destroyed a number of major Cherokee towns, which were never
reoccupied. These included most notably Kituwa, whose inhabitants
migrated west and took up residence at Great Island Town on
the Little Tennessee River among the Overhill Cherokee.
Grant destroyed a number of major Cherokee towns, which were never
reoccupied. These included most notably Kituwa, whose inhabitants
migrated west and took up residence at Great Island Town on
the Little Tennessee River among the Overhill Cherokee.
The peace between the Cherokee and the colonies was
sealed by separate treaties with the Colony of Virginia (Treaty of
Long-Island-on-the-Holston, 1761) and the Province of South Carolina (Treaty
of Charlestown, 1762). Standing Turkey was deposed and replaced with
pro-British Attakullakulla.
sealed by separate treaties with the Colony of Virginia (Treaty of
Long-Island-on-the-Holston, 1761) and the Province of South Carolina (Treaty
of Charlestown, 1762). Standing Turkey was deposed and replaced with
pro-British Attakullakulla.
Post-war
events
events
After the end of the French and Indian War, Great
Mortar rose to be the leading chief of the Creek and maintained sporadic
attacks on frontier settlements until his death in an ambush by the Choctaw in 1774.
Mortar rose to be the leading chief of the Creek and maintained sporadic
attacks on frontier settlements until his death in an ambush by the Choctaw in 1774.
John Stuart,
the only officer to escape the Fort Loudoun massacre, became British
Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Southern District out of Charlestown.
His deputy to the Cherokee, Alexander Cameron, lived among them,
first at Keowee, then at Toqua (Dakwayi) on the Little Tennessee River,
while Cameron’s assistant, John McDonald, set up a hundred miles to
the southwest on the west side of Chickamauga River, where it was
crossed by the Great Indian Warpath.
the only officer to escape the Fort Loudoun massacre, became British
Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Southern District out of Charlestown.
His deputy to the Cherokee, Alexander Cameron, lived among them,
first at Keowee, then at Toqua (Dakwayi) on the Little Tennessee River,
while Cameron’s assistant, John McDonald, set up a hundred miles to
the southwest on the west side of Chickamauga River, where it was
crossed by the Great Indian Warpath.
To the Creek, Stuart sent David Taitt as deputy. The
deputy to the Choctaw was his brother Charles
Stuart. Among the Chickasaw, Farquhar Bethune served as Stuart’s
deputy. John’s brother Henry Stuart served as chief deputy
superintendent.
deputy to the Choctaw was his brother Charles
Stuart. Among the Chickasaw, Farquhar Bethune served as Stuart’s
deputy. John’s brother Henry Stuart served as chief deputy
superintendent.
Shifting
boundaries (1763-1775)
boundaries (1763-1775)
In the aftermath of the Seven Years War, the European end of the same conflict, France in
ceded that part of the Louisiana Territory east of the
Mississippi River and Canada to the British. Spain took control of Louisiana
west of the Mississippi, in exchange for ceding La Florida to
Great Britain. The British created the jurisdictions of East Florida and West
Florida.
ceded that part of the Louisiana Territory east of the
Mississippi River and Canada to the British. Spain took control of Louisiana
west of the Mississippi, in exchange for ceding La Florida to
Great Britain. The British created the jurisdictions of East Florida and West
Florida.
The land in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes regions
(the Illinois Country or, under the French, Upper Louisiana),
meanwhile, later known to the fledgling independent American government as the
Northwest Territory, was originally planned as a British colony to be
called Charlotina.
(the Illinois Country or, under the French, Upper Louisiana),
meanwhile, later known to the fledgling independent American government as the
Northwest Territory, was originally planned as a British colony to be
called Charlotina.
Royal
Proclamation of 1763
Proclamation of 1763
Plans for the new colony were scuttled by the Royal
Proclamation of 1763. King George III issued this after the
visit to London of Henry Timberlake and three Cherokee
leaders: Ostenaco, Standing Turkey, and Wood Pigeon (Ata-wayi). It prohibited colonial settlement west of the
Appalachian Mountains, in an effort
to preserve territory for the Native Americans.
Proclamation of 1763. King George III issued this after the
visit to London of Henry Timberlake and three Cherokee
leaders: Ostenaco, Standing Turkey, and Wood Pigeon (Ata-wayi). It prohibited colonial settlement west of the
Appalachian Mountains, in an effort
to preserve territory for the Native Americans.
From the northern end of the Appalachians in the Province of Nova Scotia, the
Proclamation Line ran down the spine of the mountain chain until reaching the
headwaters of the Ocmulgee River, when it turned south until the border of
newly-acquired Colony of East Florida. Many colonials resented any interference with
their drive to the west, and the proclamation was a major irritant contributing
to the American Revolution.
Proclamation Line ran down the spine of the mountain chain until reaching the
headwaters of the Ocmulgee River, when it turned south until the border of
newly-acquired Colony of East Florida. Many colonials resented any interference with
their drive to the west, and the proclamation was a major irritant contributing
to the American Revolution.
In 1774 the lands meant for Charlotina (Upper
Louisiana to the French and Ohio County and Illinois Country to the English),
became part of the Province of Quebec. To the north and west of Quebec lay Rupert’s Land, owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company. To the east of Quebec lay the Colony of Newfoundland and the Province of Nova Scotia bordering the Province of Massachusetts Bay’s
northern territories that had once been the Province of Maine.
These changes left reserved to the Indians the areaLouisiana to the French and Ohio County and Illinois Country to the English),
became part of the Province of Quebec. To the north and west of Quebec lay Rupert’s Land, owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company. To the east of Quebec lay the Colony of Newfoundland and the Province of Nova Scotia bordering the Province of Massachusetts Bay’s
northern territories that had once been the Province of Maine.
between the Appalachian Mountains and the Ogeechee
River on the east, the Mississippi
River in the west, the 31st parallel in the south, and in the
north the Ohio River until Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, then the St.
Lawrence River until the 45th parallel.
The prohibition against white settlement west of the
Appalachians remained in place, however, so the Indians of what was now
southern Quebec only had to contend with the French Creoles already in their
midst in addition to the British officials assigned to the district and British
troops garrisoning frontier forts.
Appalachians remained in place, however, so the Indians of what was now
southern Quebec only had to contend with the French Creoles already in their
midst in addition to the British officials assigned to the district and British
troops garrisoning frontier forts.
Treaty of
Hard Labour (1768)
Hard Labour (1768)
To resolve the problem of settlers living beyond the
line established in the previous treaty, John Stuart, as Superintendent for
Southern Indian Affairs, negotiated a treaty signed on 17 October 1768 with the
Cherokee surrendering their claims to the Colony of Virginia to the land
between the Allegheny Mountains and the Ohio River. Essentially, it covered what is now West Virginia and eastern Kentucky,
with a bit of the southwest corner of Pennsylvania.
line established in the previous treaty, John Stuart, as Superintendent for
Southern Indian Affairs, negotiated a treaty signed on 17 October 1768 with the
Cherokee surrendering their claims to the Colony of Virginia to the land
between the Allegheny Mountains and the Ohio River. Essentially, it covered what is now West Virginia and eastern Kentucky,
with a bit of the southwest corner of Pennsylvania.
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768)
After Pontiac's
War (1763–1764), the Iroquois Confederacy and each tribe (Seneca, Oneida,
Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, Tuscarora) individually,
ceded to the colonies of New Jersey, Virginia, and Pennsylvania
their claims to the land between the Ohio and Cumberland Rivers, known to them
and other Indians as Kain-tuck-ee (Kentucky), to which several other tribes
north and south also lay claim, in the 5 November 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix.
War (1763–1764), the Iroquois Confederacy and each tribe (Seneca, Oneida,
Mohawk, Onondaga, Cayuga, Tuscarora) individually,
ceded to the colonies of New Jersey, Virginia, and Pennsylvania
their claims to the land between the Ohio and Cumberland Rivers, known to them
and other Indians as Kain-tuck-ee (Kentucky), to which several other tribes
north and south also lay claim, in the 5 November 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix.
Vandalia (1769)
With a significant obstacle removed, in 1769
developers and land speculators planned to start a new colony called Vandalia in the territory ceded by the
Cherokee. Plans for that fell through,
however, and in 1774 Virginia annexed it as the District of West Augusta.
developers and land speculators planned to start a new colony called Vandalia in the territory ceded by the
Cherokee. Plans for that fell through,
however, and in 1774 Virginia annexed it as the District of West Augusta.
Treaty of
Augusta (1773)
Augusta (1773)
In this treaty signed on 1 June 1773 with the Province
of Georgia, the Cherokee and a small number of Muskogee ceded their claims to 2
million acres and 675 thousand acres respectively in return for the
cancellation of their enormous debts to traders of the colony. It established the boundary between the two
nations and the colony at the Oconee River.
of Georgia, the Cherokee and a small number of Muskogee ceded their claims to 2
million acres and 675 thousand acres respectively in return for the
cancellation of their enormous debts to traders of the colony. It established the boundary between the two
nations and the colony at the Oconee River.
Lord Dunmore’s
War (1773-1774)
War (1773-1774)
The next year, in response to the first attempt to
establish a permanent settlement inside the hunting grounds of Kentucky in 1773
by a group under Daniel Boone, the Shawnee, Lenape (Delaware), Mingo (Mingwe), and some Cherokee
attacked a scouting and forage party that included Boone's son James (who was
captured and tortured to death along with Henry Russell), beginning Lord Dunmore's War (1773–1774).
The
Cherokee and the Creek were active also, mainly confining themselves to
small raids on the backcountry settlements of the Carolinas and
Georgia. The fighting reached into the later Tennessee with an attack
by the Shawnee and their allies upon the recent North-of-Holston settlements.
establish a permanent settlement inside the hunting grounds of Kentucky in 1773
by a group under Daniel Boone, the Shawnee, Lenape (Delaware), Mingo (Mingwe), and some Cherokee
attacked a scouting and forage party that included Boone's son James (who was
captured and tortured to death along with Henry Russell), beginning Lord Dunmore's War (1773–1774).
The
Cherokee and the Creek were active also, mainly confining themselves to
small raids on the backcountry settlements of the Carolinas and
Georgia. The fighting reached into the later Tennessee with an attack
by the Shawnee and their allies upon the recent North-of-Holston settlements.
In the Treaty
of Camp Charlotte that ended the war, signed 19 October 1774, between the
Shawnee and Lenape and Virginia, the former two ceded all their
claims to Kentucky in addition to pledging an end to fighting. The Mingo refused to take part.
of Camp Charlotte that ended the war, signed 19 October 1774, between the
Shawnee and Lenape and Virginia, the former two ceded all their
claims to Kentucky in addition to pledging an end to fighting. The Mingo refused to take part.
Early colonial settlements in Upper East Tennessee
(1768-1772)
(1768-1772)
The earliest colonial settlement in the vicinity of
what became Upper East Tennessee was Sapling Grove (Bristol), the first of
the North-of-Holston (River) settlements, founded by Evan
Shelby, who purchased the land from John Buchanan, in 1768.
what became Upper East Tennessee was Sapling Grove (Bristol), the first of
the North-of-Holston (River) settlements, founded by Evan
Shelby, who purchased the land from John Buchanan, in 1768.
Jacob Brown began
another on the Nolichucky River and John Carter in what
became known as Carter's Valley (between Clinch River and
Beech Creek), both in 1771.
another on the Nolichucky River and John Carter in what
became known as Carter's Valley (between Clinch River and
Beech Creek), both in 1771.
Following the Battle of Alamance in
1771, James Robertson led a group of some twelve or thirteen Regulator families from North Carolina
to the Watauga River.
1771, James Robertson led a group of some twelve or thirteen Regulator families from North Carolina
to the Watauga River.
All these groups believed they were in the territorial
limits of the colony of Virginia. After
a survey proved their mistake, Cameron ordered them to leave. However,
Attakullakulla, now First Beloved Man, interceded on their behalf, and they
were allowed to remain, provided there was no further encroachment.
On 8 May 1772, the settlers on the Watauga and on thelimits of the colony of Virginia. After
a survey proved their mistake, Cameron ordered them to leave. However,
Attakullakulla, now First Beloved Man, interceded on their behalf, and they
were allowed to remain, provided there was no further encroachment.
Nolichucky signed the Watauga Compact to form the Watauga
Association, and despite the fact the other two settlements were not
parties to it, all of them are sometimes lumped together as “Wataugans”. A much better term for these four and their
offspring is the Overmountain settlements.
Cherokee divisions
in 1775
in 1775
The Overhill Towns were on the
lower Little Tennessee River and the Tellico Rivers.
The Valley Towns occupied the upper
Hiwassee and Valley Rivers in southwestern North Carolina.
lower Little Tennessee River and the Tellico Rivers.
The Valley Towns occupied the upper
Hiwassee and Valley Rivers in southwestern North Carolina.
The original Lower
Towns lay along the headwaters of the Savannah and Chattahoochee
Rivers in northwestern South Carolina and Northeast Georgia.
Towns lay along the headwaters of the Savannah and Chattahoochee
Rivers in northwestern South Carolina and Northeast Georgia.
The Middle Towns sat on the upper
Little Tennessee and Natahala Rivers and and Little Tellico Creek in western North Carolina.
Little Tennessee and Natahala Rivers and and Little Tellico Creek in western North Carolina.
The Out Towns (later known as
the Hill Towns) were on the Tuckasegee and Oconaluftee Rivers in the foothills of the Great Smoky Mountains.
the Hill Towns) were on the Tuckasegee and Oconaluftee Rivers in the foothills of the Great Smoky Mountains.
The Hiwassee Towns sat along the lower Hiwassee and Ocoee Rivers in East Tennessee and are sometimes counted as part of the Overhill Towns.
Later Cherokeesettlements
The Chickamauga
Towns, occupied after 1776, mostly lay in modern Hamilton County,
Tennessee, with a couple in modern Bradley County, Tennessee and one in modern
Catoosa County, Georgia.
Towns, occupied after 1776, mostly lay in modern Hamilton County,
Tennessee, with a couple in modern Bradley County, Tennessee and one in modern
Catoosa County, Georgia.
The later Lower Towns, occupied after 1782, were
at first limited to modern Marion County, Tennessee, Dade County, Georgia, and
Jackson County, Alabama, later expanding to the south.
at first limited to modern Marion County, Tennessee, Dade County, Georgia, and
Jackson County, Alabama, later expanding to the south.
The Upper Towns
were in modern Georgia north of the Chattahoochee River, first settled by the
diaspora from the original Lower Towns during the American Revolution.
were in modern Georgia north of the Chattahoochee River, first settled by the
diaspora from the original Lower Towns during the American Revolution.
Though the town groups were loosely associated with
each other, each town was sovereign and towns within groups went their own way.
The only coercive power within the nation lay with the seven clans
(formerly fourteen) to which all Cherokee belonged. The Cherokee spoke
three dialects: Upper Cherokee in the Valley and Overhill Towns, Middle
Cherokee in the Middle and Out Towns, and Lower Cherokee in the Lower Towns,
the last being much different from the other two and sharing features with the
Siouan languages of their neighbors.
each other, each town was sovereign and towns within groups went their own way.
The only coercive power within the nation lay with the seven clans
(formerly fourteen) to which all Cherokee belonged. The Cherokee spoke
three dialects: Upper Cherokee in the Valley and Overhill Towns, Middle
Cherokee in the Middle and Out Towns, and Lower Cherokee in the Lower Towns,
the last being much different from the other two and sharing features with the
Siouan languages of their neighbors.
Henderson Purchase (1775)
One year after Dunmore’s War, on 17 March 1775, agroup of North Carolina speculators led by Richard Henderson negotiated
the Treaty of Watauga at Sycamore Shoals with
the older Overhill Cherokee leaders, chief of whom were Oconostota and
Attakullakulla, surrendering the claim of the Cherokee to the Kain-tuck-ee (Ganda-giga'i)
lands and supposedly giving the Transylvania Land Company ownership
thereof in spite of claims to the region by other tribes such as the Lenape,
Shawnee, and Chickasaw.
Dragging Canoe, headman of Great Island Town (Amoyeliegwayi)
and son of Attakullakulla, refused to go along with the deal and told the North
Carolina men, “You have bought a fair land, but there is a cloud hanging over
it; you will find its settlement dark and bloody”.
and son of Attakullakulla, refused to go along with the deal and told the North
Carolina men, “You have bought a fair land, but there is a cloud hanging over
it; you will find its settlement dark and bloody”.
The royal the governors of both Virginia and North
Carolina quickly repudiated the Watauga treaty, however, and Henderson had to
flee to avoid arrest. Even George
Washington spoke out against it. The Cherokee appealed to John Stuart,
the Indian Affairs Superintendent, for help, which he had provided on previous
such occasions, but the outbreak of the American Revolution intervened.
Carolina quickly repudiated the Watauga treaty, however, and Henderson had to
flee to avoid arrest. Even George
Washington spoke out against it. The Cherokee appealed to John Stuart,
the Indian Affairs Superintendent, for help, which he had provided on previous
such occasions, but the outbreak of the American Revolution intervened.
In the view of both Henderson and of the frontierspeople,
the revolution negated the judgments of the royal governors, and the
Transylvania Company began pouring settlers into the region they had
“purchased”.
the revolution negated the judgments of the royal governors, and the
Transylvania Company began pouring settlers into the region they had
“purchased”.
Revolutionary War phase: Cherokee War of 1776
During the Revolutionary War, the Cherokee not only
fought against the settlements in the Overmountain region, and later in the
Cumberland Basin, defending against territorial encroachment, they also fought
as allies of Great Britain against its rebellious subjects.
fought against the settlements in the Overmountain region, and later in the
Cumberland Basin, defending against territorial encroachment, they also fought
as allies of Great Britain against its rebellious subjects.
In the first phase, British strategy was focused on
the North, and not so much on the backwoods settlements, especially those in
the west. The Cherokee, therefore, were
on their own, except for supplies from British ports on the coast and some joint operation in South Carolina.
the North, and not so much on the backwoods settlements, especially those in
the west. The Cherokee, therefore, were
on their own, except for supplies from British ports on the coast and some joint operation in South Carolina.
British
provinces in North America, 1775
provinces in North America, 1775
Majorities
in thirteen British provinces supported the
rebellion that broke out in 1775 and became a revolution. These
provinces were Virginia (including West Virginia and Kentucky),
Massachusetts Bay (including Maine), South
Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, New York,
Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, and New
Hampshire, including Vermont).
in thirteen British provinces supported the
rebellion that broke out in 1775 and became a revolution. These
provinces were Virginia (including West Virginia and Kentucky),
Massachusetts Bay (including Maine), South
Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, New York,
Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, and New
Hampshire, including Vermont).
Each of those provinces (officially; colloquially
called colonies) had significant minorities of Loyalists, especially those in
the South.
called colonies) had significant minorities of Loyalists, especially those in
the South.
Six British provinces in North America remained
Loyalist. These were Quebec, Nova
Scotia, Newfoundland, and Rupert’s Land in the North and East Florida and West
Florida in the South; plus the Indian Reserve south of the Ohio River. East
Florida served as a haven for Loyalist refugees in the South and Nova Scotia
the same for the North.
Loyalist. These were Quebec, Nova
Scotia, Newfoundland, and Rupert’s Land in the North and East Florida and West
Florida in the South; plus the Indian Reserve south of the Ohio River. East
Florida served as a haven for Loyalist refugees in the South and Nova Scotia
the same for the North.
Flight of
the Loyalists
the Loyalists
Stuart, meanwhile, was besieged by a mob at his house
in Charlestown and had to flee for his life before he could
act. His first stop was St. Augustine in East Florida.
in Charlestown and had to flee for his life before he could
act. His first stop was St. Augustine in East Florida.
Another noted Loyalist later associated with the
Cherokee, Thomas Brown, was not
nearly so fortunate. In his home of
Brownsborough, Georgia, near Augusta, he was assaulted by a crowd of the Sons
of Liberty, tied to a tree, roasted with fire, scalped, tarred, and
feathered. After his escape, he took up
residence among the Seminole commanding his East Florida Rangers, who fought with them and some of the Lower
Muskogee.
Cherokee, Thomas Brown, was not
nearly so fortunate. In his home of
Brownsborough, Georgia, near Augusta, he was assaulted by a crowd of the Sons
of Liberty, tied to a tree, roasted with fire, scalped, tarred, and
feathered. After his escape, he took up
residence among the Seminole commanding his East Florida Rangers, who fought with them and some of the Lower
Muskogee.
From St. Augustine, Stuart sent his deputy, Cameron,
and his brother Henry to Mobile in West Florida to obtain
short-term supplies with which the Cherokee could survive and fight if
necessary. Dragging Canoe took a party
of eighty warriors to provide security for the pack-train, and met Henry Stuart
and Cameron, his adopted brother, at Mobile on 1 March 1776. He asked how he
could help the British against their rebel subjects, and for help with the
illegal settlers, and they told him to take no action at the present but to
wait for regular troops to arrive.
and his brother Henry to Mobile in West Florida to obtain
short-term supplies with which the Cherokee could survive and fight if
necessary. Dragging Canoe took a party
of eighty warriors to provide security for the pack-train, and met Henry Stuart
and Cameron, his adopted brother, at Mobile on 1 March 1776. He asked how he
could help the British against their rebel subjects, and for help with the
illegal settlers, and they told him to take no action at the present but to
wait for regular troops to arrive.
Patriot
black propaganda
black propaganda
When they arrived at Chota, Henry sent out letters to
the trespassers of the Washington District (Watauga and
Nolichucky), Pendelton District (North-of-Holston), and Carter's
Valley (in modern Hawkins County, Tennessee) reiterating the fact they
were on Indian land illegally and giving them forty days to leave.
the trespassers of the Washington District (Watauga and
Nolichucky), Pendelton District (North-of-Holston), and Carter's
Valley (in modern Hawkins County, Tennessee) reiterating the fact they
were on Indian land illegally and giving them forty days to leave.
Those sympathetic to the Revolution then forged to
indicate a large force of regular troops plus Chickasaw, Choctaw (Chahta), and Muscgoee was on
the march from Pensacola and planning to pick up
reinforcements from the Cherokee. The forgeries alarmed the countryside, and
settlers began gathering together in closer settlements than their isolated
farmsteads, building stations (small forts), and otherwise preparing for an
attack.
First blood
indicate a large force of regular troops plus Chickasaw, Choctaw (Chahta), and Muscgoee was on
the march from Pensacola and planning to pick up
reinforcements from the Cherokee. The forgeries alarmed the countryside, and
settlers began gathering together in closer settlements than their isolated
farmsteads, building stations (small forts), and otherwise preparing for an
attack.
First blood
The beginning of open
hostilities between the Cherokee and the Americans, particularly those in the
frontier settlements of the Overmountain region (Upper East Tennessee), the
Cumberland Basin, and Kentucky. The
first phase, from the attacks and counter attacks in summer 1776 through the
peace treaties a year later, is often called the Cherokee War of 1776 or the
Second Cherokee War.
hostilities between the Cherokee and the Americans, particularly those in the
frontier settlements of the Overmountain region (Upper East Tennessee), the
Cumberland Basin, and Kentucky. The
first phase, from the attacks and counter attacks in summer 1776 through the
peace treaties a year later, is often called the Cherokee War of 1776 or the
Second Cherokee War.
Battle of Sullivan's Island
In
June 1776, the British launched an attempt to capture Charlestown
Harbor by land and by sea. On 28 June the land forces commanded by Henry Clinton attacked the harbor's chief defense, Fort Sullivan, commanded by William Moultrie.
An attempt by three of the British ships to maneuver in support failed
due to hidden natural obstructions. Meanwhile, Moultrie's guns
inflicted heavy damage on several of the other ships in the fleet. The
land forces attack failed too.
After
withdrawing, the British abandoned the South for the next
two-and-a-half years. However, the British officials could not halt
plans already in motion for supporting attacks by the Cherokee and
Loyalists.
Visit from the northern tribesIn
June 1776, the British launched an attempt to capture Charlestown
Harbor by land and by sea. On 28 June the land forces commanded by Henry Clinton attacked the harbor's chief defense, Fort Sullivan, commanded by William Moultrie.
An attempt by three of the British ships to maneuver in support failed
due to hidden natural obstructions. Meanwhile, Moultrie's guns
inflicted heavy damage on several of the other ships in the fleet. The
land forces attack failed too.
After
withdrawing, the British abandoned the South for the next
two-and-a-half years. However, the British officials could not halt
plans already in motion for supporting attacks by the Cherokee and
Loyalists.
In May 1776, partly at the behest of Henry
Hamilton, the British governor in Detroit,
the Shawnee chief Cornstalk (Hokoleskwa) led a delegation from the
northern tribes (Shawnee, Lenape, Iroquois, Ottawa [Wadaawewinini],
others) arrived in Chota to meet
with the southern tribes (Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw) about
fighting with the British against their common enemy. Cornstalk called for united action against
those they called the “Long Knives”,
the squatters who settled and remained in Kain-tuck-ee (Ganda-gi), or, as the settlers called it, Transylvania.
At the close of his speech, Cornstalk offered his war
belt, and Dragging Canoe accepted it, along with Abraham (Osiuta) of Chilhowee (Tsulawiyi). Dragging Canoe
also accepted belts from the Ottawa and the Iroquois, while Savanukah (Raven) of Chota, accepted
the belt from the Lenape. The northern emissaries offered war belts to Stuart
and Cameron, but they declined to accept.
belt, and Dragging Canoe accepted it, along with Abraham (Osiuta) of Chilhowee (Tsulawiyi). Dragging Canoe
also accepted belts from the Ottawa and the Iroquois, while Savanukah (Raven) of Chota, accepted
the belt from the Lenape. The northern emissaries offered war belts to Stuart
and Cameron, but they declined to accept.
The plan was for Middle, Out, and Valley Towns of what
is now western North Carolina to attack South Carolina, the Lower Towns of
western South Carolina and North Georgia (led personally by Alexander Cameron)
to attack Georgia, and the Overhill Towns along the lower Little Tennessee and
Hiwassee rivers to attack Virginia and North Carolina.
is now western North Carolina to attack South Carolina, the Lower Towns of
western South Carolina and North Georgia (led personally by Alexander Cameron)
to attack Georgia, and the Overhill Towns along the lower Little Tennessee and
Hiwassee rivers to attack Virginia and North Carolina.
In the Overhill campaign, Dragging Canoe was to lead a
force against the Pendelton District, Abraham another against the Washington
District, and Savanukah one against Carter's Valley.
force against the Pendelton District, Abraham another against the Washington
District, and Savanukah one against Carter's Valley.
To demonstrate his determination, Dragging Canoe led a
small war party into Kentucky and returned with four scalps to present to
Cornstalk before the northern delegation departed.
small war party into Kentucky and returned with four scalps to present to
Cornstalk before the northern delegation departed.
Jemima Boone and the Calloway sisters
Shortly
after the visit from the northern tribes, the Overhill Cherokee began
small-party raiding into Kentucky, often in conjunction with the
Shawnee.
In one of these raids on 14 July, a week before theafter the visit from the northern tribes, the Overhill Cherokee began
small-party raiding into Kentucky, often in conjunction with the
Shawnee.
Cherokee attacks on the settlements and colonies, a war party of five, two
Shawnee and three Cherokee led by Hanging Maw (Skwala-guta)
of Coyatee (Kaietiyi), captured three teenage girls in a
canoe on the Kentucky River. The girls were Jemima Boone, daughter of Daniel
Boone, and Elizabeth and Frances Callaway, daughters of Richard Callaway.
The war party hurried toward the Shawnee towns north
of the Ohio River, but were overtaken by Boone and his rescue party after three
days. After a brief firefight, the war party retreated and the girls were
rescued, unharmed and having been treated reasonably well, according to Jemima
Boone.
of the Ohio River, but were overtaken by Boone and his rescue party after three
days. After a brief firefight, the war party retreated and the girls were
rescued, unharmed and having been treated reasonably well, according to Jemima
Boone.
Besides the sheer courage of the feat itself, the
incident is notable for providing inspiration for the chase scene in James
Fenimore Cooper's novel The Last of the Mohicans after the
capture of Cora and Alice Munro, in which their father Lieutenant-Colonel George
Munro, the book's protagonist Hawkeye (Natty Bumppo), his
adopted Mohican elder brother Chingachgook,
Chingachgook's son Uncas, and David Gamut follow
and overtake the Huron (Wyandot) war party of Magua in
order to rescue the sisters.
incident is notable for providing inspiration for the chase scene in James
Fenimore Cooper's novel The Last of the Mohicans after the
capture of Cora and Alice Munro, in which their father Lieutenant-Colonel George
Munro, the book's protagonist Hawkeye (Natty Bumppo), his
adopted Mohican elder brother Chingachgook,
Chingachgook's son Uncas, and David Gamut follow
and overtake the Huron (Wyandot) war party of Magua in
order to rescue the sisters.
First Cherokee campaigns
In late June, war parties from the Lower Towns began
attacking the frontier of South Carolina.
attacking the frontier of South Carolina.
On 1 July, the Out, Middle, and Valley Towns sent
out war parties raiding the frontier settlements of North Carolina
east of the Blue Ridge, coming down the Catawba River.
out war parties raiding the frontier settlements of North Carolina
east of the Blue Ridge, coming down the Catawba River.
Meanwhile, traders warned the Overmountain settlements
of what was to become Upper East Tennessee of the impending Overhill Cherokee
attacks. They learned of the plans from
the Beloved Woman (female equivalent of Beloved Man) Nancy Ward (Agigaue). Having
thus been betrayed, the Cherokee offensive proved to be disastrous for the
attackers.
Siege of McDowell's Station
On
3 July, a small war party of Cherokee besieged a small fort on the
North Carolina frontier. The garrison managed to keep from being
overrun until a large body of militia under Griffith Rutherford arrived in the rear of besiegers, who then retreated.
Battle of Lindley's Station
A
190-strong war party of Cherokee and Loyalist partisans dressed as
Cherokee attacked the large fort on the South Carolina frontier known as
Lindley's Station. Its 150-man Patriot garrison had just finished
building it the day before. After repulsing the attack, the Patriots
gave chase, killing two Loyalists and capturing ten, but inflicting no
casualties on the Cherokee.
of what was to become Upper East Tennessee of the impending Overhill Cherokee
attacks. They learned of the plans from
the Beloved Woman (female equivalent of Beloved Man) Nancy Ward (Agigaue). Having
thus been betrayed, the Cherokee offensive proved to be disastrous for the
attackers.
Siege of McDowell's Station
On
3 July, a small war party of Cherokee besieged a small fort on the
North Carolina frontier. The garrison managed to keep from being
overrun until a large body of militia under Griffith Rutherford arrived in the rear of besiegers, who then retreated.
Battle of Lindley's Station
A
190-strong war party of Cherokee and Loyalist partisans dressed as
Cherokee attacked the large fort on the South Carolina frontier known as
Lindley's Station. Its 150-man Patriot garrison had just finished
building it the day before. After repulsing the attack, the Patriots
gave chase, killing two Loyalists and capturing ten, but inflicting no
casualties on the Cherokee.
Battle of
Island Flats
Island Flats
Finding Fort Lee on the Nolichucky deserted, the
Cherokee force from the Overhill Towns burned it to the ground, then divided into three columns.
Dragging Canoe's force advanced up the Great Indian Warpath and had a small
skirmish with a body of militia numbering twenty who quickly withdrew. Pursuing them and intending to take Fort
Lee at Long-Island-on-the-Holston, his force advanced
toward the island. However, on 20 July, it encountered a larger force of
militia six miles from their target, about half the size of his own but
desperate, in a stronger position than the small group before.
Cherokee force from the Overhill Towns burned it to the ground, then divided into three columns.
Dragging Canoe's force advanced up the Great Indian Warpath and had a small
skirmish with a body of militia numbering twenty who quickly withdrew. Pursuing them and intending to take Fort
Lee at Long-Island-on-the-Holston, his force advanced
toward the island. However, on 20 July, it encountered a larger force of
militia six miles from their target, about half the size of his own but
desperate, in a stronger position than the small group before.
During the “Battle of Island Flats” which
followed, Dragging Canoe himself was wounded in his hip by a musket ball and
his brother Little Owl (Uku-usdi) incredibly survived
after being hit eleven times. His force then withdrew, raiding isolated cabins
on the way and returned to the Overhill area with plunder and scalps, after
raiding further north into southwestern Virginia.
followed, Dragging Canoe himself was wounded in his hip by a musket ball and
his brother Little Owl (Uku-usdi) incredibly survived
after being hit eleven times. His force then withdrew, raiding isolated cabins
on the way and returned to the Overhill area with plunder and scalps, after
raiding further north into southwestern Virginia.
Siege of Fort Caswell
On 21 July, Abraham of Chilhowee led his party in
attempting to capture Fort Caswell on the Watauga, but his attack
was driven off with heavy casualties. Instead of withdrawing, however, he put
the garrison under siege, a tactic which had worked well the previous decade
with Fort Loudon. After two weeks,
though, he and his warriors gave that up.
attempting to capture Fort Caswell on the Watauga, but his attack
was driven off with heavy casualties. Instead of withdrawing, however, he put
the garrison under siege, a tactic which had worked well the previous decade
with Fort Loudon. After two weeks,
though, he and his warriors gave that up.
Savanukah's party raided from the outskirts of Carter's Valley
far into the Clinch River Valley in Virginia, but those targets contained only small settlements and
isolated farmsteads so he did no real military damage.
Colonial response
The affected colonies of
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia conferred and decided
that swift and massive retaliation was the only way to preserve peace on the
frontier.
far into the Clinch River Valley in Virginia, but those targets contained only small settlements and
isolated farmsteads so he did no real military damage.
Colonial response
The affected colonies of
Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia conferred and decided
that swift and massive retaliation was the only way to preserve peace on the
frontier.
In the Lower, Middle, Valley, and
Out Towns
Response from the colonials in the aftermath was swiftOut Towns
and overwhelming. North Carolina sent Rutherford with
2400 militia to scour the Oconaluftee and the Tuckasegee
Rivers and the headwaters of the Little Tennessee and
the Hiwassee, South Carolina sent 1800 men to the Savannah River,
and Georgia sent 200 to the Chattahoochee and the Tugaloo.
Two days after leaving Fort
McGahey on 23 July, Griffith Rutherford’s militia, who were accompanied by a
large contingent of Catawba warriors, encountered an ambush by the Cherokee at the Battle of Cowee
Gap in what is now western North Carolina. After defeating the
attackers, he proceeded to a designated rendezvous with the South Carolina
militia.
McGahey on 23 July, Griffith Rutherford’s militia, who were accompanied by a
large contingent of Catawba warriors, encountered an ambush by the Cherokee at the Battle of Cowee
Gap in what is now western North Carolina. After defeating the
attackers, he proceeded to a designated rendezvous with the South Carolina
militia.
On 1 August, Cameron and the
Cherokee ambushed Andrew Williamson and his South Carolina militia force
near the Lower Cherokee town of Seneca (Isunigu) in the Battle of Twelve Mile Creek. After retreating, he joined up with the
militia force of Andrew Pickens.
Cherokee ambushed Andrew Williamson and his South Carolina militia force
near the Lower Cherokee town of Seneca (Isunigu) in the Battle of Twelve Mile Creek. After retreating, he joined up with the
militia force of Andrew Pickens.
The next day, 2 August, the
joint militia force bivouacked, and Pickens led a party of twenty-five to
forage for food and firewood. In what is
known as the Ring Fight, two hundred Cherokee surrounded and attacked the
party, which withdrew into a ring and were able to hold their attackers at bay
until reinforcements arrived.
joint militia force bivouacked, and Pickens led a party of twenty-five to
forage for food and firewood. In what is
known as the Ring Fight, two hundred Cherokee surrounded and attacked the
party, which withdrew into a ring and were able to hold their attackers at bay
until reinforcements arrived.
Pickens and his militia
defeated the Cherokee on the Tugaloo River in the Battle of Tugaloo, which they then burned, on 10 August.
defeated the Cherokee on the Tugaloo River in the Battle of Tugaloo, which they then burned, on 10 August.
On 12 August, Williamson and
Pickens defeated the Cherokee at the Battle of Tamassee. With this, they had completed their
destruction of the Lower Towns, Keowee, Estatoe, Seneca, and the rest. Afterwards, they proceeded north to meet up
with the North Carolina militia of Griffith Rutherford.
Pickens defeated the Cherokee at the Battle of Tamassee. With this, they had completed their
destruction of the Lower Towns, Keowee, Estatoe, Seneca, and the rest. Afterwards, they proceeded north to meet up
with the North Carolina militia of Griffith Rutherford.
Rutherford’s militia
traversed Swannanoa Gap in the Blue Ridge on 1 September, and reached
the outskirts of the Out, Valley, and Middle Towns on 14 September, at which
they started burning towns and crops.
traversed Swannanoa Gap in the Blue Ridge on 1 September, and reached
the outskirts of the Out, Valley, and Middle Towns on 14 September, at which
they started burning towns and crops.
Williamson’s militia were
attacked at the Battle of Black Hole near Franklin, North Carolina on 19 September, but were
able to fend off the Cherokee and meet up with Rutherford to take part in the
campaign of destruction.
attacked at the Battle of Black Hole near Franklin, North Carolina on 19 September, but were
able to fend off the Cherokee and meet up with Rutherford to take part in the
campaign of destruction.
In all, Williamson, Pickens, and Rutherford destroyed
more than 50 towns, burned the houses and food stores, destroyed the orchards,
slaughtered livestock, and killed hundreds of Cherokee. They sold captives into
slavery, and these were often transported to the Caribbean.
more than 50 towns, burned the houses and food stores, destroyed the orchards,
slaughtered livestock, and killed hundreds of Cherokee. They sold captives into
slavery, and these were often transported to the Caribbean.
In the Overhill Towns
In the meantime, the Continental Army sent Col. William
Christian to the lower Little Tennessee Valley with a battalion of
Continentals, five hundred Virginia militia, three hundred North Carolina
militia, and three hundred rangers. By
this time, Dragging Canoe and his warriors had already returned to the Overhill
Towns.
Christian to the lower Little Tennessee Valley with a battalion of
Continentals, five hundred Virginia militia, three hundred North Carolina
militia, and three hundred rangers. By
this time, Dragging Canoe and his warriors had already returned to the Overhill
Towns.
Oconostota advocated making peace with the colonists
at any price. Dragging Canoe countered by calling for the women, children, and
old to be sent below the Hiwassee and for the warriors to burn the towns, then
ambush the Virginians at the French Broad River, but Oconostota,
Attakullakulla, and the rest of the older chiefs decided against that path,
Oconostota sending word to the approaching army offering to exchange Dragging
Canoe and Cameron if the Overhill Towns were spared.
at any price. Dragging Canoe countered by calling for the women, children, and
old to be sent below the Hiwassee and for the warriors to burn the towns, then
ambush the Virginians at the French Broad River, but Oconostota,
Attakullakulla, and the rest of the older chiefs decided against that path,
Oconostota sending word to the approaching army offering to exchange Dragging
Canoe and Cameron if the Overhill Towns were spared.
In Dragging Canoe's last appearance at the council of
the Overhill Towns, he denounced the older leaders as rogues and “Virginians”
for their willingness to cede away land for an ephemeral safety, ending,
"As for me, I have my young warriors about me. We will have our lands.” He
then stalked out of the council.
the Overhill Towns, he denounced the older leaders as rogues and “Virginians”
for their willingness to cede away land for an ephemeral safety, ending,
"As for me, I have my young warriors about me. We will have our lands.” He
then stalked out of the council.
Afterwards, he and other militant leaders, including
Ostenaco, gathered like-minded Cherokee from the Overhill, Valley, and Hill
towns, and migrated to what is now the Chattanooga, Tennessee, area, to
which Cameron had already transferred.
Ostenaco, gathered like-minded Cherokee from the Overhill, Valley, and Hill
towns, and migrated to what is now the Chattanooga, Tennessee, area, to
which Cameron had already transferred.
Upon reaching the Little Tennessee in late October,
Christian’s Virginia force found those towns from whence the militant attackers
had spring—Great Island, Citico (Sitiku), Toqua, Tuskegee (Taskigi), Chilhowee, Great Tellico—not only deserted but burned to the ground by their own former inhabitants, along with
all the food and stores that could not be carried away.
Christian’s Virginia force found those towns from whence the militant attackers
had spring—Great Island, Citico (Sitiku), Toqua, Tuskegee (Taskigi), Chilhowee, Great Tellico—not only deserted but burned to the ground by their own former inhabitants, along with
all the food and stores that could not be carried away.
The Treaties of 1777
Preliminary negotiations between the Overhill Towns
and Virginia were held as Fort Patrick Henry in April 1777. Nathaniel
Gist, later father of Sequoyah,
led the talks for Virginia, while Attakullakulla, Oconostota, and Savanukah
headed the delegation of Cherokee.
The Cherokee in the Hill, Valley, Lower, and Overhill
towns signed the Treaty of Dewitt's Corner with Georgia and
South Carolina (Ostenaco was one of the Cherokee signatories) 20 May and
the Treaty of Fort Henry with Virginia and North Carolina on
20 July. They promised to stop warring,
with those colonies promising in return to protect them from attack.
and Virginia were held as Fort Patrick Henry in April 1777. Nathaniel
Gist, later father of Sequoyah,
led the talks for Virginia, while Attakullakulla, Oconostota, and Savanukah
headed the delegation of Cherokee.
The Cherokee in the Hill, Valley, Lower, and Overhill
towns signed the Treaty of Dewitt's Corner with Georgia and
South Carolina (Ostenaco was one of the Cherokee signatories) 20 May and
the Treaty of Fort Henry with Virginia and North Carolina on
20 July. They promised to stop warring,
with those colonies promising in return to protect them from attack.
In the former treaty, the Lower Towns ceded all their
land in modern South Carolina except for a small strip in what is now Oconee
County. One provision of the latter
treaty required that James Robertson and a small garrison be quartered at Chota
on the Little Tennessee. He had been
appointed Superintendent of Indian Affairs for North Carolina, while Joseph Martin had been appointed
Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Virginia.
land in modern South Carolina except for a small strip in what is now Oconee
County. One provision of the latter
treaty required that James Robertson and a small garrison be quartered at Chota
on the Little Tennessee. He had been
appointed Superintendent of Indian Affairs for North Carolina, while Joseph Martin had been appointed
Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Virginia.
Neither treaty actually halted attacks by frontiersmen
from the illegal colonies, nor did they stop encroachment onto Cherokee
lands. The peace treaties required the Cherokee
give up their land of the Lower Towns in South Carolina and most of the area of
the Out Towns.
from the illegal colonies, nor did they stop encroachment onto Cherokee
lands. The peace treaties required the Cherokee
give up their land of the Lower Towns in South Carolina and most of the area of
the Out Towns.
Other Southeastern Indian nations
The paramount mico Emistisigua lead
the Upper Creek in alliance with the British, and within a
year had become the strongest native ally of Dragging Canoe and his faction of
Cherokee. After 1777, he was assisted by
Alex McGillivray (Hoboi-Hili-Miko), mixed-blood son of
a Scots-Irish trader and a Coushatta woman, mico of the
Coushatta, former colonel in the British Army, and one of John Stuart's agents.
the Upper Creek in alliance with the British, and within a
year had become the strongest native ally of Dragging Canoe and his faction of
Cherokee. After 1777, he was assisted by
Alex McGillivray (Hoboi-Hili-Miko), mixed-blood son of
a Scots-Irish trader and a Coushatta woman, mico of the
Coushatta, former colonel in the British Army, and one of John Stuart's agents.
In the meantime, though the majority of the Lower Creek opted to remain neutral, Loyalist Capt. William McIntosh (Tustunnugee
Hutkee), another of Stuart's agents and father of the later Creek leader
William McIntosh (Taskanugi Hatke),
recruited a sizable unit of Hitchiti
warriors to fight on the British side.
Hutkee), another of Stuart's agents and father of the later Creek leader
William McIntosh (Taskanugi Hatke),
recruited a sizable unit of Hitchiti
warriors to fight on the British side.
The Seminole
of East Florida, universally Loyalist in sympathy, provided hundreds of
warriors for British campaigns in the Southeast, particularly against
Georgia. They often fought with the East
Florida Rangers commanded by Thomas Brown.
Known to the whites as Cowkeeper, Ahaya,
founder of the Seminole nation, was usually their leader.
of East Florida, universally Loyalist in sympathy, provided hundreds of
warriors for British campaigns in the Southeast, particularly against
Georgia. They often fought with the East
Florida Rangers commanded by Thomas Brown.
Known to the whites as Cowkeeper, Ahaya,
founder of the Seminole nation, was usually their leader.
The Choctaw and the Chickasaw in alliance with the
British patrolled the Mississippi and western Tennessee rivers to prevent
American incursion along those pathways.
British patrolled the Mississippi and western Tennessee rivers to prevent
American incursion along those pathways.
The Chickasaw formed part of the garrison of Fort
Panmure on the Mississippi and later of Pensacola.
Panmure on the Mississippi and later of Pensacola.
Over a thousand Choctaw warriors helped guard the
vital ports in West Florida of Pensacola (seat of the province) and Mobile
against the Spanish.
vital ports in West Florida of Pensacola (seat of the province) and Mobile
against the Spanish.
In contrast, a portion of Choctaw supported the
Spanish, though never in direct opposition to other Choctaw, while the rest
remained neutral.
Spanish, though never in direct opposition to other Choctaw, while the rest
remained neutral.
Sandwiched in between the colonies of North Carolina
and South Carolina, the Catawba had no real option to take the Loyalist side,
but rather than simply remaining neutral joined the Patriot cause as active
allies.
and South Carolina, the Catawba had no real option to take the Loyalist side,
but rather than simply remaining neutral joined the Patriot cause as active
allies.
Migration to the Chickamauga area
After the end of the opening campaigns, Alexander
Cameron had suggested to Dragging Canoe and his dissenting Cherokee that they
settle near the place where the Great Indian Warpath crossed the Chickamauga
River (South Chickamauga Creek). Since Dragging Canoe made that town
his seat of operations, frontier Americans called his followers the
“Chickamaugas”. Other Cherokee refugees turned up in Pensacola and wintered there.
Cameron had suggested to Dragging Canoe and his dissenting Cherokee that they
settle near the place where the Great Indian Warpath crossed the Chickamauga
River (South Chickamauga Creek). Since Dragging Canoe made that town
his seat of operations, frontier Americans called his followers the
“Chickamaugas”. Other Cherokee refugees turned up in Pensacola and wintered there.
As mentioned above, John McDonald already had a
trading post there on the west bank of the Chickamauga River, providing a link
to Henry Stuart, brother of John, in the West Florida capital
of Pensacola. Cameron, deputy Indian superintendent and blood
brother to Dragging Canoe, accompanied him to Chickamauga. In fact, nearly all
the whites legally resident among the Cherokee by their permission were part of
the exodus.
In March 1777, Cameron
sent the refugees to Chickamauga along with a sizable amount of goods.
The colonials learned of the material and planned to intercept it.
When Cameron informed him of the danger, Emistisigua, paramount chief
of the Upper Creek, sent a force of three hundred fifty warriors to
guard them as well as to assist in rebuilding and waging war.
trading post there on the west bank of the Chickamauga River, providing a link
to Henry Stuart, brother of John, in the West Florida capital
of Pensacola. Cameron, deputy Indian superintendent and blood
brother to Dragging Canoe, accompanied him to Chickamauga. In fact, nearly all
the whites legally resident among the Cherokee by their permission were part of
the exodus.
In March 1777, Cameron
sent the refugees to Chickamauga along with a sizable amount of goods.
The colonials learned of the material and planned to intercept it.
When Cameron informed him of the danger, Emistisigua, paramount chief
of the Upper Creek, sent a force of three hundred fifty warriors to
guard them as well as to assist in rebuilding and waging war.
Chickamauga Towns
In addition to Old Chickamauga (Tsikamagi)
Town, the headman of which was Big
Fool, Dragging Canoe's band set up three other settlements on the
Chickamauga River:
Town, the headman of which was Big
Fool, Dragging Canoe's band set up three other settlements on the
Chickamauga River:
Toqua (Dakwayi),
at its mouth on the Tennessee River;
at its mouth on the Tennessee River;
Opelika, a
few kilometers upstream from Chickamauga; and
Buffalo Town (Yunsayi)few kilometers upstream from Chickamauga; and
at the headwaters of the river in northwest Georgia (in the vicinity of the
later Ringgold, Georgia).
Other Chickamauga towns were:
Cayuga (Cayoka)
on Hiwassee Island;
on Hiwassee Island;
Black Fox (Inaliyi)
at the current community of the same name in Bradley County, Tennessee;
at the current community of the same name in Bradley County, Tennessee;
Ooltewah (Ultiwa),
under Ostenaco on Ooltewah (Wolftever) Creek;
under Ostenaco on Ooltewah (Wolftever) Creek;
Sawtee (Itsati),
under Dragging Canoe's brother Little Owl on Laurel (North Chickamauga) Creek;
under Dragging Canoe's brother Little Owl on Laurel (North Chickamauga) Creek;
Citico (Sitiku),
along the creek of the same name;
along the creek of the same name;
Chatanuga (Tsatanugi)
at the foot of Lookout Mountain in what is now St. Elmo Historic District; and
at the foot of Lookout Mountain in what is now St. Elmo Historic District; and
Tuskegee (Taskigi)
under Bloody Fellow (Yunwigiga) on Williams’ Island
(which after the wars stretched across from the island southwest into Lookout
Valley).
under Bloody Fellow (Yunwigiga) on Williams’ Island
(which after the wars stretched across from the island southwest into Lookout
Valley).
The land used by the Cherokee was once the traditional
location of the Creek, who had withdrawn in the early 18th
century to leave a buffer zone between themselves and the Cherokee. In the
intervening years, the two tribes used the region as hunting grounds.
location of the Creek, who had withdrawn in the early 18th
century to leave a buffer zone between themselves and the Cherokee. In the
intervening years, the two tribes used the region as hunting grounds.
Other
supporters
supporters
Many Cherokee resented the (largely Scots-Irish)
settlers moving into Cherokee lands, and agreed with Dragging Canoe. The Cherokee towns of Great Hiwasee (Ayuwasi),
Tennessee (Tanasi), Chestowee (Tsistuyi),
Ocoee (Ugwahi), and Amohee (Amoyee)
in the vicinity of Hiwassee River were wholly in the camp of the rejectionists,
as were the Lower Cherokee in the North Georgia towns of Coosawatie (Kusawatiyi), Etowah (Itawayi), Ellijay (Elatseyi), Ustanari (or
Ustanali), etc., who had been evicted from their homes in South Carolina by the
Treaty of Dewitts' Corner.
settlers moving into Cherokee lands, and agreed with Dragging Canoe. The Cherokee towns of Great Hiwasee (Ayuwasi),
Tennessee (Tanasi), Chestowee (Tsistuyi),
Ocoee (Ugwahi), and Amohee (Amoyee)
in the vicinity of Hiwassee River were wholly in the camp of the rejectionists,
as were the Lower Cherokee in the North Georgia towns of Coosawatie (Kusawatiyi), Etowah (Itawayi), Ellijay (Elatseyi), Ustanari (or
Ustanali), etc., who had been evicted from their homes in South Carolina by the
Treaty of Dewitts' Corner.
The Yuchi in the vicinity of the new
settlement, on the upper Chickamauga, Pinelog, and Conasauga Creeks, likewise
supported Dragging Canoe's resistance.
settlement, on the upper Chickamauga, Pinelog, and Conasauga Creeks, likewise
supported Dragging Canoe's resistance.
Continuing the fight
In
contempt of the peace proceedings at Fort Henry, Dragging Canoe led a
war party that killed a settler named Frederick Calvitt and stole
fifteen horses from James Robertson, then moved to Carter's Valley,
killing the grandparents of later U.S. Congressman David Crockett along
with several children near the modern Rogersville, and marauding across
the valley. In all the raiders took twelve scalps.
In summer 1777, Deputy Superintendents Cameron and Taitt led a
large contingent of Cherokee and Creek warriors against the back country
settlements of the Carolinas and Georgia.
While they were thus engaged, the Shawnee repeatedly attacked the Kentucky settlements between the Cumberland River and Levisa Fork.
Besides continued small
harassment raids against the back country of Virginia, the Carolinas,
and Georgia, the Cherokee established at camp at the confluence of the
Tennessee and Ohio Rivers to prevent infiltration into the Mississippi
in the spring of 1778.
Warriors of the Chickamauga Towns renewed their raiding after the Green Corn festival in August 1778.
Targets of
the Cherokee
Based in their new homes, Dragging Canoe's main targets were
settlers, whom he invariably referred to as “Virginians”, on the Holston, Doe,
Watauga, and Nolichucky Rivers, on the Cumberland and Red Rivers, and the
isolated stations in between. They also
ambushed parties travelling on the Tennessee River, and local
sections of the many ancient trails that served as “highways”, such as the Great
Indian Warpath (Mobile, to northeast Canada), the Cisca and
St. Augustine Trail (St. Augustine to the French Salt Lick at
Nashville), the Cumberland Trail (from the Upper Creek Path to
the Great Lakes), and the Nickajack Trail (Nickajack to
Augusta).
settlers, whom he invariably referred to as “Virginians”, on the Holston, Doe,
Watauga, and Nolichucky Rivers, on the Cumberland and Red Rivers, and the
isolated stations in between. They also
ambushed parties travelling on the Tennessee River, and local
sections of the many ancient trails that served as “highways”, such as the Great
Indian Warpath (Mobile, to northeast Canada), the Cisca and
St. Augustine Trail (St. Augustine to the French Salt Lick at
Nashville), the Cumberland Trail (from the Upper Creek Path to
the Great Lakes), and the Nickajack Trail (Nickajack to
Augusta).
Later, these Cherokee stalked the Natchez
Trace and such highways as were constructed by the uninvited settlers
like the Kentucky, Cumberland, and Walton Roads. Occasionally, the Cherokee attacked targets in
Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Kentucky, and the Ohio Country.
Trace and such highways as were constructed by the uninvited settlers
like the Kentucky, Cumberland, and Walton Roads. Occasionally, the Cherokee attacked targets in
Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Kentucky, and the Ohio Country.
Revolutionary War phase: Southern strategy
In late 1778, British strategy shifted south. As their attention went, so too did theirefforts, their armies, and their supplies, including those slated for the
Southern Indians. The Southern theater
had the added advantage of being home to more Loyalists than the North. With all these new advantages, the Cherokee were able to greatly renew their territorial defense. Both the Cherokee (all of them) and the Upper Creek signed on for active participation.
British victory in the North
On 17 December 1778, Henry Hamilton captured Fort
Vincennes and used it as a base to plan a spring offensive against George Rogers
Clark, whose forces had recently seized control of much of the Illinois
Country. His plans were to assemble five hundred warriors from
various Indian nations, including the Cherokee, the Chickasaw, the Shawnee, and
others, for a campaign to expel Clark's forces back east, then drive through
Kentucky clearing American settlements. McDonald's headquarters at
Chickamauga was to be the staging ground and commissary for the Cherokee and
the Creek.
Vincennes and used it as a base to plan a spring offensive against George Rogers
Clark, whose forces had recently seized control of much of the Illinois
Country. His plans were to assemble five hundred warriors from
various Indian nations, including the Cherokee, the Chickasaw, the Shawnee, and
others, for a campaign to expel Clark's forces back east, then drive through
Kentucky clearing American settlements. McDonald's headquarters at
Chickamauga was to be the staging ground and commissary for the Cherokee and
the Creek.
British victories in the South
The British captured Savannah, Georgia on 29 December
1778 with help from Dragging Canoe, John McDonald, and the Cherokee, along with
McGillivray's Upper Creekforce and McIntosh's band of Hitichiti warriors.
1778 with help from Dragging Canoe, John McDonald, and the Cherokee, along with
McGillivray's Upper Creekforce and McIntosh's band of Hitichiti warriors.
Just over a month later, 31 January 1779, they
captured Augusta, Georgia, as well, though they quickly had to retreat. After a couple of more handovers, the British
were in control.
captured Augusta, Georgia, as well, though they quickly had to retreat. After a couple of more handovers, the British
were in control.
With these victories, the remaining neutral towns of
the Lower Creek now threw in their lot with the British side.
the Lower Creek now threw in their lot with the British side.
First Cumberland settlement
In early 1779, Robertson and John Donelson traveled
overland across country along the Kentucky Road and founded Fort
Nashborough at the French Salt Lick (which got its name
from having previously been the site of a French outpost called Fort
Charleville) on the Cumberland River. It was the first of many
such settlements in the Cumberland area, which subsequently became the focus of
attacks by all the tribes in the surrounding region. Leaving a small group
there, both returned east.
overland across country along the Kentucky Road and founded Fort
Nashborough at the French Salt Lick (which got its name
from having previously been the site of a French outpost called Fort
Charleville) on the Cumberland River. It was the first of many
such settlements in the Cumberland area, which subsequently became the focus of
attacks by all the tribes in the surrounding region. Leaving a small group
there, both returned east.
Loss in the
North
North
Unfortunately for the grand scheme of Henry Hamilton,
Clark recaptured the fort and him along with it on 25 February 1779. The
Cherokee turned their sights to the northeast.
Raids in the Overmountain region
Clark recaptured the fort and him along with it on 25 February 1779. The
Cherokee turned their sights to the northeast.
Raids in the Overmountain region
Robertson heard warning from Chota that Dragging
Canoe's warriors were going to attack the Holston area. In addition, he had
received intelligence that McDonald's place was the staging area for the
northern campaign that Hamilton had been planning to conduct, and that a
stockpile of supplies equivalent to that of a hundred packhorses was stored
there. Small parties of Cherokee began
repeated small raids on the Holston frontier shortly thereafter.
Canoe's warriors were going to attack the Holston area. In addition, he had
received intelligence that McDonald's place was the staging area for the
northern campaign that Hamilton had been planning to conduct, and that a
stockpile of supplies equivalent to that of a hundred packhorses was stored
there. Small parties of Cherokee began
repeated small raids on the Holston frontier shortly thereafter.
Death of John Stuart
On 21 March 1779, John Stuart, up to that point Indian
Affairs Superintendent, died at Pensacola. George
Germain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, split the Southern Department
into two districts. Alexander Cameron in
Pensacola was assigned to the Mississippi District to work with the Chickasaw
and Choctaw. In Savannah, Thomas Brown of the King’s Carolina Rangers (as his unit was
renamed) was assigned to the Atlantic District to work with the
Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole.
Affairs Superintendent, died at Pensacola. George
Germain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, split the Southern Department
into two districts. Alexander Cameron in
Pensacola was assigned to the Mississippi District to work with the Chickasaw
and Choctaw. In Savannah, Thomas Brown of the King’s Carolina Rangers (as his unit was
renamed) was assigned to the Atlantic District to work with the
Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole.
Scott and Shelby expeditions
At the beginning of April 1779, a group of two hundred
Cherokee and fifty Loyalist Rangers under Walter Scott left the
Chickamauga Towns headed for a marauding campagin against the frontier
settlements in Georgia and South Carolina.
Cherokee and fifty Loyalist Rangers under Walter Scott left the
Chickamauga Towns headed for a marauding campagin against the frontier
settlements in Georgia and South Carolina.
Hearing
of their departure, Joseph Martin at Chota, Superintendent for Indian
Affairs of Virginia, sent word to Governor Patrick Henry of their
absence.
of their departure, Joseph Martin at Chota, Superintendent for Indian
Affairs of Virginia, sent word to Governor Patrick Henry of their
absence.
The state governments of Virginia and North Carolina
made a joint decision to send an expedition against the Chickamauga Towns, who
were thought to be responsible for the raids. Most of
those warriors, however, were in South Carolina with Cameron and Dragging
Canoe. A thousand Overmountain men under
Evan Shelby (father of Isaac Shelby,
first governor of the State of Kentucky) and a regiment of Continentals under John Montgomery disembarked on 10
April, boating down the Tennessee in a fleet of dugout canoes.
made a joint decision to send an expedition against the Chickamauga Towns, who
were thought to be responsible for the raids. Most of
those warriors, however, were in South Carolina with Cameron and Dragging
Canoe. A thousand Overmountain men under
Evan Shelby (father of Isaac Shelby,
first governor of the State of Kentucky) and a regiment of Continentals under John Montgomery disembarked on 10
April, boating down the Tennessee in a fleet of dugout canoes.
They arrived in the Chickamauga towns ten days later.
For the next two weeks, they destroyed the eleven towns in the immediate
area and most of the food supply, along with McDonald's home, store, and
commissary. Due to the absence of nearly all the warriors, there was no
resistance and only four deaths among the inhabitants. Whatever was not
destroyed was confiscated and sold at the site where the trail back to the
Holston crossed what has since been known as Sale Creek.
For the next two weeks, they destroyed the eleven towns in the immediate
area and most of the food supply, along with McDonald's home, store, and
commissary. Due to the absence of nearly all the warriors, there was no
resistance and only four deaths among the inhabitants. Whatever was not
destroyed was confiscated and sold at the site where the trail back to the
Holston crossed what has since been known as Sale Creek.
Return home
of the warriors
of the warriors
Upon hearing of the devastation of their towns,
Dragging Canoe, McDonald, and their men, including the Rangers, returned to
Chickamauga and its vicinity.
Dragging Canoe, McDonald, and their men, including the Rangers, returned to
Chickamauga and its vicinity.
The Shawnee sent envoys to Chickamauga to find out if
the destruction had caused Dragging Canoe's people to lose the will to fight,
along with a sizable detachment of warriors to assist them in the South.
the destruction had caused Dragging Canoe's people to lose the will to fight,
along with a sizable detachment of warriors to assist them in the South.
In response to their inquiries, Dragging Canoe held up
the war belts he'd accepted when the delegation visited Chota in 1776, and
said, “We are not yet conquered”. To cement the alliance, the Cherokee
responded to the Shawnee gesture with nearly a hundred of their warriors sent
to the North.
the war belts he'd accepted when the delegation visited Chota in 1776, and
said, “We are not yet conquered”. To cement the alliance, the Cherokee
responded to the Shawnee gesture with nearly a hundred of their warriors sent
to the North.
The
towns in the Chickamauga area were soon rebuilt
and reoccupied by their former inhabitants.
Dragging Canoe responded to the Shelby expedition with punitive raids on
the frontiers of both North Carolina and Virginia, and proved good on
his word because British command communications in October show the
Cherokee active on the frontier from Virginia to Georgia.
towns in the Chickamauga area were soon rebuilt
and reoccupied by their former inhabitants.
Dragging Canoe responded to the Shelby expedition with punitive raids on
the frontiers of both North Carolina and Virginia, and proved good on
his word because British command communications in October show the
Cherokee active on the frontier from Virginia to Georgia.
Cameron's expedition
In
midsummer 1779, Cameron arrived at Chickamauga with
a company of Loyalist Refugees and convinced the Cherokee in the towns
there to
join them on their march to South Carolina. Three hundred took up arms
and headed out to maraud the backcountry of Georgia and South Carolina.
Later in October, Andrew Williamson's South Carolina militia responded
by attacking several towns on the eastern frontier of Cherokee territory
and burning their foodstores.
midsummer 1779, Cameron arrived at Chickamauga with
a company of Loyalist Refugees and convinced the Cherokee in the towns
there to
join them on their march to South Carolina. Three hundred took up arms
and headed out to maraud the backcountry of Georgia and South Carolina.
Later in October, Andrew Williamson's South Carolina militia responded
by attacking several towns on the eastern frontier of Cherokee territory
and burning their foodstores.
Concord between the Lenape and the Overhill Cherokee
In late 1779, Oconostota, Savanukah, and other
non-belligerent Cherokee leaders travelled north to pay their respects after
the death of the White Eyes, the Lenape leader who had been
encouraging his people to give up their fighting against the Americans. He had
also been negotiating, first with Lord Dunmore and second with the American
government, for an Indian state with representatives seated in the Continental
Congress, for which he finally won an agreement with that body, and
addressed in person in 1776.
non-belligerent Cherokee leaders travelled north to pay their respects after
the death of the White Eyes, the Lenape leader who had been
encouraging his people to give up their fighting against the Americans. He had
also been negotiating, first with Lord Dunmore and second with the American
government, for an Indian state with representatives seated in the Continental
Congress, for which he finally won an agreement with that body, and
addressed in person in 1776.
Upon the arrival of the Cherokee in the village
of Goshocking, they were taken to the council house and began
talks. The next day, the Cherokee present solemnly agreed with their
“grandfathers” to take neither side in the ongoing conflict between the
Americans and the British.
of Goshocking, they were taken to the council house and began
talks. The next day, the Cherokee present solemnly agreed with their
“grandfathers” to take neither side in the ongoing conflict between the
Americans and the British.
Part of the reasoning was that thus “protected”, neither
tribe would find themselves subject to the vicissitudes of war. The rest of the
world at conflict, however, remained heedless, and the provisions lasted as
long as it took the ink to dry, as it were.
tribe would find themselves subject to the vicissitudes of war. The rest of the
world at conflict, however, remained heedless, and the provisions lasted as
long as it took the ink to dry, as it were.
Loss of Mobile
On 10 February 1780, Spanish forces from New
Orleans under Bernardo de Galvez, allied to the Americans
but acting in the interests of Spain, captured Mobile in the Battle of
Fort Charlotte, along with
Charles Stuart and David Taitt.
Orleans under Bernardo de Galvez, allied to the Americans
but acting in the interests of Spain, captured Mobile in the Battle of
Fort Charlotte, along with
Charles Stuart and David Taitt.
When they next moved against Pensacola the following
month, McIntosh and McGillivray rallied 2000 Creek warriors to its defense,
joining a large contingent of Choctaw and a smaller one of Chickasaw. A British
fleet arrived before the Spanish could take the port.
month, McIntosh and McGillivray rallied 2000 Creek warriors to its defense,
joining a large contingent of Choctaw and a smaller one of Chickasaw. A British
fleet arrived before the Spanish could take the port.
Chickasaw-American war
The Chickasaw transformed from river sentries into
attacking warriors in June 1780 when George Rogers Clark and a
party of over five hundred, including some Kaskaskia
of the Illinois Confederation,
built Fort Jefferson and the surrounding settlement of
Clarksville near the mouth of the Ohio, inside their hunting grounds. The building had begun in April and just
finished before the first attack on 7 June.
attacking warriors in June 1780 when George Rogers Clark and a
party of over five hundred, including some Kaskaskia
of the Illinois Confederation,
built Fort Jefferson and the surrounding settlement of
Clarksville near the mouth of the Ohio, inside their hunting grounds. The building had begun in April and just
finished before the first attack on 7 June.
After learning of the trespass, the Chickasaw
destroyed the settlement, laid siege to the fort, and began attacking the
Kentucky frontier. They continued attacking the Cumberland and into Kentucky
through early the following year. Their
last raid was in conjunction with Dragging Canoe's Cherokee, upon Freeland’s
Station on the Cumberland on 11 January 1781.
destroyed the settlement, laid siege to the fort, and began attacking the
Kentucky frontier. They continued attacking the Cumberland and into Kentucky
through early the following year. Their
last raid was in conjunction with Dragging Canoe's Cherokee, upon Freeland’s
Station on the Cumberland on 11 January 1781.
Robertson and Donelson
parties
parties
In
autumn 1779, James Robertson and a group of fellow Wataugans had left
the east down the Kentucky Road headed for Fort Nashborough. They
arrived on Christmas Day 1779 without incident, unlike what the group
led by his partner John Donelson was to face.
Donelson journeyed down the Tennessee with a partyautumn 1779, James Robertson and a group of fellow Wataugans had left
the east down the Kentucky Road headed for Fort Nashborough. They
arrived on Christmas Day 1779 without incident, unlike what the group
led by his partner John Donelson was to face.
that included his family, intending to go across to the mouth of the
Cumberland, then upriver to Ft. Nashborough. Their departed the Overmountain vicinity
on 27 February 1780. Eventually, the
group did reach its destination, but only after being ambushed several times.
In the first encounter near Tuskegee Island on 7
March, the Cherokee warriors under Bloody Fellow focused their attention on the
boat in the rear whose passengers had come down with smallpox. There was only
one survivor, later ransomed. The victory, however, proved to be a Pyrrhic one
for the Cherokee, as the ensuing epidemic wiped out several hundred in the
vicinity.
March, the Cherokee warriors under Bloody Fellow focused their attention on the
boat in the rear whose passengers had come down with smallpox. There was only
one survivor, later ransomed. The victory, however, proved to be a Pyrrhic one
for the Cherokee, as the ensuing epidemic wiped out several hundred in the
vicinity.
Several miles downriver, beginning with the
obstruction known as the Suck or the Kettle, the party was fired upon
throughout their passage through the Tennessee River Gorge (aka Cash
Canyon), the party losing one with several wounded. Several hundred
kilometers downriver, the Donelson party ran up against the Muscle
Shoals, where they were attacked at one end by the Creek and the other
end by the Chickasaw. The final attack was by the Chickasaw in the vicinity of
the modern Hardin County, Tennessee.
obstruction known as the Suck or the Kettle, the party was fired upon
throughout their passage through the Tennessee River Gorge (aka Cash
Canyon), the party losing one with several wounded. Several hundred
kilometers downriver, the Donelson party ran up against the Muscle
Shoals, where they were attacked at one end by the Creek and the other
end by the Chickasaw. The final attack was by the Chickasaw in the vicinity of
the modern Hardin County, Tennessee.
The Donelson party finally reached its destination on
24 April 1780. The group included John's
daughter Rachel, much later the wife of future U.S. Representative, Senator,
and President Andrew Jackson, who fought a duel in her honor in 1806.
24 April 1780. The group included John's
daughter Rachel, much later the wife of future U.S. Representative, Senator,
and President Andrew Jackson, who fought a duel in her honor in 1806.
Shortly after his party's arrival at Fort Nashborough,
Donelson along with Robertson and others formed the Cumberland Compact.
Donelson along with Robertson and others formed the Cumberland Compact.
After the Revolution, Donelson moved to the Indiana
country, where he and William Christian were captured while fighting in
the Illinois Country in 1786 and were burned at the stake by
their captors.
country, where he and William Christian were captured while fighting in
the Illinois Country in 1786 and were burned at the stake by
their captors.
Capture of Charlestown
Charlestown was captured on
12 May 1780 after a siege that began 29 March.
Along with it, the British took prisoner some three thousand Patriots,
including South Carolina militia leader Andrew Williamson. Upon giving his parole that he would not
again take up arms, Williamson became a double agent for the Patriots,
according to testimony after the war by Patriot General Nathanael Greene.
12 May 1780 after a siege that began 29 March.
Along with it, the British took prisoner some three thousand Patriots,
including South Carolina militia leader Andrew Williamson. Upon giving his parole that he would not
again take up arms, Williamson became a double agent for the Patriots,
according to testimony after the war by Patriot General Nathanael Greene.
Defense of Augusta and Battle of King's Mountain
That
summer, the new Indian superintendent for the
Atlantic District, Thomas Brown, planned to have a joint conference
between the
Cherokee and Creek to plan ways to coordinate their attacks, but that
was
forestalled when Georgians led by Elijah Clarke made a concerted effort
to
retake Augusta in September, where he had his headquarters. His King's
Carolina Rangers and fifty Creek warriors, reinforced by fifty Cherokee
warriors who made it thru just before
the siege line closed, formed the entire garrison against Clarke's seven
hundred fighters.
summer, the new Indian superintendent for the
Atlantic District, Thomas Brown, planned to have a joint conference
between the
Cherokee and Creek to plan ways to coordinate their attacks, but that
was
forestalled when Georgians led by Elijah Clarke made a concerted effort
to
retake Augusta in September, where he had his headquarters. His King's
Carolina Rangers and fifty Creek warriors, reinforced by fifty Cherokee
warriors who made it thru just before
the siege line closed, formed the entire garrison against Clarke's seven
hundred fighters.
The arrival of a sizable war party from the
Chickamauga and Overhill Towns and a force from Fort Ninety-Six in
South Carolina prevented the capture of both, and the Cherokee and Brown's
rangers chased Elijah Clarke's army into the arms of John Sevier,
wreaking havoc on rebellious settlements along the way.
Chickamauga and Overhill Towns and a force from Fort Ninety-Six in
South Carolina prevented the capture of both, and the Cherokee and Brown's
rangers chased Elijah Clarke's army into the arms of John Sevier,
wreaking havoc on rebellious settlements along the way.
This set the stage for the Battle of King's
Mountain on 7 October 1780,
in which the Loyalist militia American
Volunteers under Patrick Ferguson moved south trying to
encircle Clarke and were defeated by a force of 900 frontiersmen under Sevier
and William Campbell referred to as the Overmountain Men.
Mountain on 7 October 1780,
in which the Loyalist militia American
Volunteers under Patrick Ferguson moved south trying to
encircle Clarke and were defeated by a force of 900 frontiersmen under Sevier
and William Campbell referred to as the Overmountain Men.
Cherokee Overmountain
campaign of 1780
campaign of 1780
Alexander Cameron, aware of the absence from the
settlements of nearly a thousand men, urged Dragging Canoe and other Cherokee
leaders to strike while they had the opportunity. Under the influence of
Savanukah, the Overhill Towns gave their full support to the new offensive.
Both Cameron and the Cherokee had been expecting a quick victory for Ferguson
and were stunned he suffered such a resounding defeat so soon, but the assault
was already in motion.
settlements of nearly a thousand men, urged Dragging Canoe and other Cherokee
leaders to strike while they had the opportunity. Under the influence of
Savanukah, the Overhill Towns gave their full support to the new offensive.
Both Cameron and the Cherokee had been expecting a quick victory for Ferguson
and were stunned he suffered such a resounding defeat so soon, but the assault
was already in motion.
Hearing word of the new invasion from Nancy Ward, her
second known betrayal, Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson sent
an expedition of seven hundred Virginians and North Carolinians against the
Cherokee in December 1780, under the command of Sevier. It met a seventy-member
Cherokee war party at the Battle of Boyd's Creek on 16 December and routed it.
second known betrayal, Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson sent
an expedition of seven hundred Virginians and North Carolinians against the
Cherokee in December 1780, under the command of Sevier. It met a seventy-member
Cherokee war party at the Battle of Boyd's Creek on 16 December and routed it.
After the battle, Sevier’s army joined forces
under Arthur Campbell and Joseph Martin, and marched
against the Overhill towns on the Little Tennessee and the Hiwassee and the
Valley Towns, burning seventeen of them, including Chota, Chilhowee, the
original Citico, Tellico, Great Hiwassee, and Chestowee, finishing up on 1
January 1781.
under Arthur Campbell and Joseph Martin, and marched
against the Overhill towns on the Little Tennessee and the Hiwassee and the
Valley Towns, burning seventeen of them, including Chota, Chilhowee, the
original Citico, Tellico, Great Hiwassee, and Chestowee, finishing up on 1
January 1781.
Afterwards, the Overhill leaders withdrew from further
active conflict for the time being, though the Middle and Valley Towns
continued to harass the frontier.
active conflict for the time being, though the Middle and Valley Towns
continued to harass the frontier.
Cherokee
Cumberland campaign, 1780-1781
Cumberland campaign, 1780-1781
In the Cumberland area, the new settlements lost
around forty people in attacks by the Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Shawnee,
and Lenape during 1780. The
Munsee-Lenape were the first to conduct what became repeated attacks, along
with the Chickasaw, Shawnee, Wyandot,
and Mingo, on the Cumberland settlements, as well as those in Kentucky.
around forty people in attacks by the Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Shawnee,
and Lenape during 1780. The
Munsee-Lenape were the first to conduct what became repeated attacks, along
with the Chickasaw, Shawnee, Wyandot,
and Mingo, on the Cumberland settlements, as well as those in Kentucky.
The Chickamauga Cherokee began their own attacks
against the Cumberland settlements in November 1780, starting a campaign that
lasted until the following April.
against the Cumberland settlements in November 1780, starting a campaign that
lasted until the following April.
Battle of
the Bluff
the Bluff
Three months after the first Chickasaw attack on the
Cumberland, the Cherokee's largest attack of the wars against the settlements
came on 2 April 1781, culminating in what became known as the Battle of
the Bluff, led by Dragging Canoe in person. It lasted until the next
day.
Cumberland, the Cherokee's largest attack of the wars against the settlements
came on 2 April 1781, culminating in what became known as the Battle of
the Bluff, led by Dragging Canoe in person. It lasted until the next
day.
Afterward, settlers began to abandon the settlements
until only three stations were left, a condition which lasted until 1783.
until only three stations were left, a condition which lasted until 1783.
First Cherokee Overmountain campaign of 1981
Not long after returning home from his destruction of
the Overhill towns, Sevier had received word that the warriors from the Middle
Towns were bent on revenge.
the Overhill towns, Sevier had received word that the warriors from the Middle
Towns were bent on revenge.
At the beginning of March, he raised a force for a
preemptive campaign against the Middle and Out Towns east of the mountains.
Beginning at Tuckasegee and ending at Cowee,
they burned fifteen towns, killed twenty-nine Cherokee, and took nine
prisoners.
preemptive campaign against the Middle and Out Towns east of the mountains.
Beginning at Tuckasegee and ending at Cowee,
they burned fifteen towns, killed twenty-nine Cherokee, and took nine
prisoners.
Martin led another militia group to disperse or
destroy a Cherokee war party encamped in the mountains at Cumberland
Gap to harass travelers on the Wilderness
Road which found signs of their quarry but none of them.
destroy a Cherokee war party encamped in the mountains at Cumberland
Gap to harass travelers on the Wilderness
Road which found signs of their quarry but none of them.
Loss of
Pensacola
Pensacola
On
7 March 1781, the Spanish attacked Pensacola again,
with an army twice the size of the garrison of British, Choctaw, and
Creek defenders, and the city fell on 8 May after a hard siege that saw
courageous
fighting by the Choctaw and Creek . Cameron
and other Indian Department officials took refuge among the Creek, then
transferred to Augusta to join Brown, who now had his own headquarters
there.
7 March 1781, the Spanish attacked Pensacola again,
with an army twice the size of the garrison of British, Choctaw, and
Creek defenders, and the city fell on 8 May after a hard siege that saw
courageous
fighting by the Choctaw and Creek . Cameron
and other Indian Department officials took refuge among the Creek, then
transferred to Augusta to join Brown, who now had his own headquarters
there.
Shawnee Overmountain campaign, 1781-1785
While Dragging Canoe and his warriors turned their attentions to the
Cumberland, the Shawnee began raiding settlements in the Overmountain region
and Southwest Virginia, the latter
by now having become Washington County.
In particular they targeted those along the Clinch and Holston Rivers and
in Powell's Valley. These
Shawnee came down from their homes on the Ohio River by way of the Warriors’ Path through the Cumberland Gap.
While Dragging Canoe and his warriors turned their attentions to the
Cumberland, the Shawnee began raiding settlements in the Overmountain region
and Southwest Virginia, the latter
by now having become Washington County.
In particular they targeted those along the Clinch and Holston Rivers and
in Powell's Valley. These
Shawnee came down from their homes on the Ohio River by way of the Warriors’ Path through the Cumberland Gap.
Their attacks continued, along with occasional forays
by McGillivray's Upper Creek, even after sporadic raids by the Cherokee
renewed, until they began to focus all their attention on the Northwest Indian
War.
by McGillivray's Upper Creek, even after sporadic raids by the Cherokee
renewed, until they began to focus all their attention on the Northwest Indian
War.
Loss of
Augusta
Augusta
Augusta was retaken by the Patriots on 6 June 1781
after a two-month siege when the Lower Muskogee relief force led by McIntosh
coming to the rescue was unable to arrive in time. Brown, Cameron, and the rest moved to Savannah.
after a two-month siege when the Lower Muskogee relief force led by McIntosh
coming to the rescue was unable to arrive in time. Brown, Cameron, and the rest moved to Savannah.
Second Cherokee Overmountain campaign of 1781
In midsummer, a party of Middle Towns
Cherokee came west over the mountains and began raiding the new
settlements on the French Broad River. Sevier raised a force of one
hundred fifty and attacked their camp on Indian Creek.
On 26 July 1781, the Overhill Towns signed the second Treaty of Long-Island-on-the-Holston, this time directly with the
Overmountain settlements. It is notable in that, although affirming
previous land cessions, it required none further.
Lenape refugees
While
the Middle Towns warriors kept the Overmountain Men busy, the
Chickamauga Towns welcomed a sizable party of Lenape warriors seeking
refuge from the fighting in the Illinois and Ohio Countries. These were
not just warriors down south temporarily but permanent resettlers who
brought their families.
In midsummer, a party of Middle Towns
Cherokee came west over the mountains and began raiding the new
settlements on the French Broad River. Sevier raised a force of one
hundred fifty and attacked their camp on Indian Creek.
On 26 July 1781, the Overhill Towns signed the second Treaty of Long-Island-on-the-Holston, this time directly with the
Overmountain settlements. It is notable in that, although affirming
previous land cessions, it required none further.
Lenape refugees
While
the Middle Towns warriors kept the Overmountain Men busy, the
Chickamauga Towns welcomed a sizable party of Lenape warriors seeking
refuge from the fighting in the Illinois and Ohio Countries. These were
not just warriors down south temporarily but permanent resettlers who
brought their families.
Politics in the Overhill Towns
In the fall of 1781, the British engineered a coup
d'état that put Savanukah as First Beloved Man in place of the more pacifist
Oconostota, who had succeeded Attakullakulla.
d'état that put Savanukah as First Beloved Man in place of the more pacifist
Oconostota, who had succeeded Attakullakulla.
For the next two years, the Overhill Cherokee openly,
as they had been doing covertly, supported the efforts of Dragging Canoe and
his militant Cherokee.
as they had been doing covertly, supported the efforts of Dragging Canoe and
his militant Cherokee.
Cherokee Georgia campaign of 1781
In November 1781, the Cherokee invaded Georgia,
ravaging Wilkes County, which was formed from 8100 km2 land
ceded by the Cherokee and Creek in the 1773 Treaty of Augusta.
A combined force of South Carolinians and Georgians under Andrew
Pickens retaliated by burning all the Valley Towns up to the Valley River.
ravaging Wilkes County, which was formed from 8100 km2 land
ceded by the Cherokee and Creek in the 1773 Treaty of Augusta.
A combined force of South Carolinians and Georgians under Andrew
Pickens retaliated by burning all the Valley Towns up to the Valley River.
Death of
Alexander Cameron
Alexander Cameron
On 27 December 1781, Alexander Cameron, British
Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Mississippi District, blood brother to
Dragging Canoe, and friend to all Cherokee, died in Savannah. He was replaced by John Graham.
Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Mississippi District, blood brother to
Dragging Canoe, and friend to all Cherokee, died in Savannah. He was replaced by John Graham.
Diplomatic
mission to Ft. St. Louis
mission to Ft. St. Louis
A party of Cherokee joined the Lenape, Shawnee, and
Chickasaw in a diplomatic visit to the Spanish at Fort St. Louis in the
Missouri country in March 1782 seeking a new avenue of obtaining arms and other
assistance in the prosecution of their ongoing conflict with the Americans in
the Ohio Valley. One group of Cherokee at this meeting led by Standing Turkey
sought and received permission to settle in Spanish Louisiana, in
the region of the White River in what became Arkansas.
Chickasaw in a diplomatic visit to the Spanish at Fort St. Louis in the
Missouri country in March 1782 seeking a new avenue of obtaining arms and other
assistance in the prosecution of their ongoing conflict with the Americans in
the Ohio Valley. One group of Cherokee at this meeting led by Standing Turkey
sought and received permission to settle in Spanish Louisiana, in
the region of the White River in what became Arkansas.
Loss of
Savannah
Savannah
The British and Muskogee garrison at Savannah fell to
the Patriots on 11 June 1782. Brown,
Graham, and the rest of the Southern Indian Department relocated yet again,
this time to St. Augustine in Loyalist East Florida.
the Patriots on 11 June 1782. Brown,
Graham, and the rest of the Southern Indian Department relocated yet again,
this time to St. Augustine in Loyalist East Florida.
Paramount mico Emistisigua
had been leading the Upper Creek attempt to relieve them and died in the
attempt; McGillivray, by then his right hand man, succeeded him to become the
leading mico of the Upper Towns.
had been leading the Upper Creek attempt to relieve them and died in the
attempt; McGillivray, by then his right hand man, succeeded him to become the
leading mico of the Upper Towns.
Cherokee Overmountain campaign of 1782
In response to incursions by new settlers beyond the
limits of the treaties, warriors from the Chickamauga Towns began harassing the
Holston frontier in the spring and summer of 1782.
limits of the treaties, warriors from the Chickamauga Towns began harassing the
Holston frontier in the spring and summer of 1782.
In September, an expedition under Sevier once again
destroyed many of the towns in the Chickamauga vicinity, and those of the
Cherokee of the former Lower Towns now in North Georgia, from Buffalo Town at the modern Ringgold,
Georgia down to Ustanali (Ustanalahi) near modern Calhoun,
Georgia, including what he called Vann's Town as well as Ellijay and Coosawattee.
Most of the towns were deserted because having advanced warning of the
impending attack, Dragging Canoe and his fellow leaders chose relocation
westward.
destroyed many of the towns in the Chickamauga vicinity, and those of the
Cherokee of the former Lower Towns now in North Georgia, from Buffalo Town at the modern Ringgold,
Georgia down to Ustanali (Ustanalahi) near modern Calhoun,
Georgia, including what he called Vann's Town as well as Ellijay and Coosawattee.
Most of the towns were deserted because having advanced warning of the
impending attack, Dragging Canoe and his fellow leaders chose relocation
westward.
Meanwhile, Sevier’s army, guided by John Watts (Kunokeski),
somehow never managed to cross paths with any parties of Cherokee.
somehow never managed to cross paths with any parties of Cherokee.
Migration to
the Lower Towns
the Lower Towns
Upon finishing their move, Dragging Canoe and his
people established what whites called the Five Lower Towns downriver
from the various natural obstructions in the twenty-six-mile Tennessee River
Gorge, known locally as Cash Canyon.
people established what whites called the Five Lower Towns downriver
from the various natural obstructions in the twenty-six-mile Tennessee River
Gorge, known locally as Cash Canyon.
Cash Canyon
Starting with Tuskegee (aka Brown’s or Williams’)Island and the sandbars on either side of it, these obstructions included
the Tumbling Shoals, the Holston Rock, the Kettle (or
Suck), the Suck Shoals, the Deadman's Eddy, the Pot,
the Skillet, the Pan, and, finally, the Narrows,
ending with Hale’s Bar.
The whole twenty-six miles was sometimes called The
Suck, and the stretch of river was notorious enough to merit mention even
by Thomas Jefferson. These navigational hazards were so formidable, in fact,
that the French agents attempting to travel upriver to reach Cherokee country
during the French and Indian War, intending to establish an outpost at the spot
later occupied by British agent McDonald, gave up after several attempts.
Suck, and the stretch of river was notorious enough to merit mention even
by Thomas Jefferson. These navigational hazards were so formidable, in fact,
that the French agents attempting to travel upriver to reach Cherokee country
during the French and Indian War, intending to establish an outpost at the spot
later occupied by British agent McDonald, gave up after several attempts.
The Five Lower Towns
The Five Lower Towns included Running Water (Amogayunyi),at the current Whiteside in Marion County, Tennessee, where Dragging Canoe made
his headquarters; Nickajack (Ani-Kusati-yi,
“Koasati place”), eight kilometers down the Tennessee River in the same
county; Long Island (Amoyeligunahita), on the Tennessee just
above the Great Creek Crossing; Crow Town (Kagunyi)
on the Tennessee, at the mouth of Crow Creek; and Stecoyee (Utsutigwayi,
aka “Lookout Mountain Town”), at the current Trenton, Georgia. Tuskegee Island
Town was reoccupied as a lookout post by a small band of warriors to provide
advance warning of invasions, and eventually many other settlements in the area
were resettled as well.
Because this was a move into the outskirts of Creek territory, Dragging Canoe, knowing such a move might be necessary, had
previously sent a delegation under Little Owl to meet with Alex McGillivray, the major Creek leader
in the area, to gain their permission to
do so. When the Cherokee moved their base, so too did John McDonald, now
deputy to Thomas Brown, along with his own assistant Daniel Ross,
making Running Water the base of operations. Graham's deputy, Alexander Campbell, set up his own base at what became Turkeytown.
previously sent a delegation under Little Owl to meet with Alex McGillivray, the major Creek leader
in the area, to gain their permission to
do so. When the Cherokee moved their base, so too did John McDonald, now
deputy to Thomas Brown, along with his own assistant Daniel Ross,
making Running Water the base of operations. Graham's deputy, Alexander Campbell, set up his own base at what became Turkeytown.
More Lower
Towns
Towns
Cherokee continued to migrate westward to join
Dragging Canoe's militant band. Many in
this influx were Cherokee from North Georgia, who fled the depredations of
expeditions such as those of Sevier; a large majority of these were former
inhabitants of the original Lower Towns. Cherokee from the Middle, or Hill,
Towns also came, a group of whom established a town named Sawtee (Itsati)
at the mouth of South Sauta Creek on the Tennessee.
Dragging Canoe's militant band. Many in
this influx were Cherokee from North Georgia, who fled the depredations of
expeditions such as those of Sevier; a large majority of these were former
inhabitants of the original Lower Towns. Cherokee from the Middle, or Hill,
Towns also came, a group of whom established a town named Sawtee (Itsati)
at the mouth of South Sauta Creek on the Tennessee.
Later major settlements included Willstown (Titsohili)
near later Fort Payne, Alabama; Turkeytown (Gundigaduhunyi),
at the head of the Cumberland Trail where the Upper Creek Path
crossed the Coosa River near Centre, Alabama; Creek Path (Kusanunnahiyi),
near at the intersection of the Great Indian Warpath with the Upper Creek Path
at the modern Guntersville, Alabama; Turnip Town (Ulunyi),
seven miles from the present-day Rome, Georgia; and Chatuga (Tsatugi),
nearer the site of Rome.
near later Fort Payne, Alabama; Turkeytown (Gundigaduhunyi),
at the head of the Cumberland Trail where the Upper Creek Path
crossed the Coosa River near Centre, Alabama; Creek Path (Kusanunnahiyi),
near at the intersection of the Great Indian Warpath with the Upper Creek Path
at the modern Guntersville, Alabama; Turnip Town (Ulunyi),
seven miles from the present-day Rome, Georgia; and Chatuga (Tsatugi),
nearer the site of Rome.
Partly because of the large influx from North Georgia
added to the fact that they were no longer occupying the Chickamauga area as
their main center, Dragging Canoe's followers and others in the area began to
be referred to as the Lower Cherokee.
added to the fact that they were no longer occupying the Chickamauga area as
their main center, Dragging Canoe's followers and others in the area began to
be referred to as the Lower Cherokee.
More allies
The ranks of these “new” Lower Cherokee were further
swelled by runaway slaves, white Tories, Creek, Yuchi, Natchez,
and Shawnee, plus a few Spanish, French, Irish, and Germans.
swelled by runaway slaves, white Tories, Creek, Yuchi, Natchez,
and Shawnee, plus a few Spanish, French, Irish, and Germans.
Another town, Coosada (at the later Larkin's Landing below
Scottsboro in Jackson County, Alabama), came into the coalition with
its Coushatta and Kaskinampo inhabitants.
Scottsboro in Jackson County, Alabama), came into the coalition with
its Coushatta and Kaskinampo inhabitants.
The band of Chickasaw living at what Chickasaw Old
Fields at the later Ditto's Landing south of Huntsville, Alabama also
joined the coalition. The rest of the
Chickasaw, however, were trying to play the Americans and the Spanish against
each other with no interest in the British.
Fields at the later Ditto's Landing south of Huntsville, Alabama also
joined the coalition. The rest of the
Chickasaw, however, were trying to play the Americans and the Spanish against
each other with no interest in the British.
Another visit from the North
In November 1782, twenty representatives from four
northern tribes—Wyandot, Ojibwa (Anishnabeg), Ottawa, and Potowatami (Bodewadmi)—travelled south to
consult with Dragging Canoe and his lieutenants at his new headquarters in
Running Water Town, which was nestled far back up the hollow from the Tennessee
River onto which it opened. Their mission was to gain the help of Dragging
Canoe's Cherokee in attacking Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and the American
settlements in Kentucky and the Illinois country.
northern tribes—Wyandot, Ojibwa (Anishnabeg), Ottawa, and Potowatami (Bodewadmi)—travelled south to
consult with Dragging Canoe and his lieutenants at his new headquarters in
Running Water Town, which was nestled far back up the hollow from the Tennessee
River onto which it opened. Their mission was to gain the help of Dragging
Canoe's Cherokee in attacking Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and the American
settlements in Kentucky and the Illinois country.
When the party returned
north, Turtle-at-Home (Selukuki
Woheli), another of Dragging Canoe's brothers, along with some seventy
warriors, joined them to live and fight with the Shawnee.
north, Turtle-at-Home (Selukuki
Woheli), another of Dragging Canoe's brothers, along with some seventy
warriors, joined them to live and fight with the Shawnee.
Georgia Indian war of 1782
A short time after, the Cherokee invaded Georgia once again with a group of Creek,
this time being met by South Carolina and Georgia troops under Pickens
and Elijah Clarke at the Oconee River after much back country raiding.
Evading the American force, the Cherokee withdrew, adopting a scorched
earth strategy to deny their foes supplies. The force eventually
retreated, opening the back country to further raids.
By the fall of 1782, Lt. Col. Thomas Waters of the Loyalist Rangers, formerly stationed at Fortthis time being met by South Carolina and Georgia troops under Pickens
and Elijah Clarke at the Oconee River after much back country raiding.
Evading the American force, the Cherokee withdrew, adopting a scorched
earth strategy to deny their foes supplies. The force eventually
retreated, opening the back country to further raids.
Ninety-Six in South Carolina, had retreated to the frontier of
Cherokee-Creek territory just outside Georgia. From his base at the mouth of Long Swamp
Creek on Etowah River, he and his
remaining rangers, in conjunction with Cherokee and Creek warriors, ravaged
backwoods homesteads and settlements.
The states of South Carolina and Georgia sent out a
joint expedition led by Andrew Pickens and Elijah Clarke respectively to put a
end to his insurgency. Leaving 16
September, they invaded that section of the country, ranging at least as far as
Ustanali, where they took prisoners. In
all they destroyed thirteen towns and villages in the Upper Towns area. By 22 October, Waters and his men had escaped
and the Cherokee sued for peace.
joint expedition led by Andrew Pickens and Elijah Clarke respectively to put a
end to his insurgency. Leaving 16
September, they invaded that section of the country, ranging at least as far as
Ustanali, where they took prisoners. In
all they destroyed thirteen towns and villages in the Upper Towns area. By 22 October, Waters and his men had escaped
and the Cherokee sued for peace.
Cherokee in the Ohio region
At the beginning of 1783, there were at least three
major communities of Cherokee in the region. One lived among the Chalahgawtha (Chillicothe)
Shawnee. The second lived among the mixed Wyandot-Mingo towns on the upper Mad
River near the later Zanesfield, Ohio. A third group is known to have lived
among and fought with the Munsee-Lenape, the only portion of the Lenape nation at war with the
Americans.
Though
filled by different warriors shifted back and forth, these three bands
remained in the Northwest until after the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.
major communities of Cherokee in the region. One lived among the Chalahgawtha (Chillicothe)
Shawnee. The second lived among the mixed Wyandot-Mingo towns on the upper Mad
River near the later Zanesfield, Ohio. A third group is known to have lived
among and fought with the Munsee-Lenape, the only portion of the Lenape nation at war with the
Americans.
Though
filled by different warriors shifted back and forth, these three bands
remained in the Northwest until after the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.
St.
Augustine conference
Augustine conference
In January 1783, Dragging Canoe and twelve hundred Cherokee
travelled to St. Augustine, the capital of East Florida, for a summit meeting
with a delegation of western tribes (Shawnee, Creek, Mohawk, Seneca, Lenape,
Mingo, Tuscarora, and Choctaw) called for a federation of Indians to oppose the
Americans and their frontier colonists.
Brown, the British Indian Superintendent, approved the concept.
travelled to St. Augustine, the capital of East Florida, for a summit meeting
with a delegation of western tribes (Shawnee, Creek, Mohawk, Seneca, Lenape,
Mingo, Tuscarora, and Choctaw) called for a federation of Indians to oppose the
Americans and their frontier colonists.
Brown, the British Indian Superintendent, approved the concept.
Tuckabatchee
council
council
At Tuckabatchee a few months after St. Augustine, a
general council of the major southern tribes (Cherokee, Creek,
Chickasaw,
Choctaw, and Seminole) plus representatives of smaller groups (Mobile,
Catawba, Biloxi, Huoma, etc.) took place to follow up, but plans for the
federation were
cut short by the signing of the Treaty
of Paris.
general council of the major southern tribes (Cherokee, Creek,
Chickasaw,
Choctaw, and Seminole) plus representatives of smaller groups (Mobile,
Catawba, Biloxi, Huoma, etc.) took place to follow up, but plans for the
federation were
cut short by the signing of the Treaty
of Paris.
Treaty of
Long Swamp Creek (1783)
Long Swamp Creek (1783)
Signed 30 May 1783, the treaty confirmed the northern
boundary between the State of Georgia and the Cherokee, with the Cherokee
ceding large amounts of land between the Savannah and Chattachoochee Rivers.
boundary between the State of Georgia and the Cherokee, with the Cherokee
ceding large amounts of land between the Savannah and Chattachoochee Rivers.
More
Overhill politics
Overhill politics
In the fall of 1783, the older pacifist leaders
replaced Savanukah with another of their number, Corntassel (Kaiyatsatahi,
aka “Old Tassel”), and sent messages of peace along with complaints of settler
encroachment to Virginia and North Carolina.
replaced Savanukah with another of their number, Corntassel (Kaiyatsatahi,
aka “Old Tassel”), and sent messages of peace along with complaints of settler
encroachment to Virginia and North Carolina.
Opposition from pacifist leaders, however, never
stopped war parties from traversing the territories of any of the town groups,
largely because the average Cherokee supported their cause, nor did it stop
small war parties of the Overhill Towns from raiding settlements in East
Tennessee, mostly those on the Holston.
stopped war parties from traversing the territories of any of the town groups,
largely because the average Cherokee supported their cause, nor did it stop
small war parties of the Overhill Towns from raiding settlements in East
Tennessee, mostly those on the Holston.
Treaty of
Paris (1783)
Paris (1783)
Signed between Great Britain and the United States on
3 September 1783, this treaty formally ended the American Revolution. The U.S. had already unilaterally declared
hostilities over the previous April.
Brown received orders from London in June to cease and desist.
3 September 1783, this treaty formally ended the American Revolution. The U.S. had already unilaterally declared
hostilities over the previous April.
Brown received orders from London in June to cease and desist.
Dragging Canoe then turned to the Spanish (who still
claimed all the territory south of the Cumberland and were now working against the Americans) for support,
trading primarily through Pensacola and Mobile.
He also maintained relations with the British governor at Detroit,
Alexander McKee, through regular diplomatic missions there under his brothers
Little Owl and The Badger.
claimed all the territory south of the Cumberland and were now working against the Americans) for support,
trading primarily through Pensacola and Mobile.
He also maintained relations with the British governor at Detroit,
Alexander McKee, through regular diplomatic missions there under his brothers
Little Owl and The Badger.
Cherokee Overmountain campaign of 1783
With the end of the Revolutionary War, new settlers
began flooding into the Overmountain settlements.
began flooding into the Overmountain settlements.
The reaction from the Cherokee was predictable, only
it did not come from the towns on the lower Little Tennessee. Instead, warriors from the Middle Towns east
of the mountains on the upper Little Tennessee began retaliation against the
settlements on the west side, targeting the newer ones on the Pigeon and French
Broad Rivers.
it did not come from the towns on the lower Little Tennessee. Instead, warriors from the Middle Towns east
of the mountains on the upper Little Tennessee began retaliation against the
settlements on the west side, targeting the newer ones on the Pigeon and French
Broad Rivers.
In late 1783, Major Peter Fine raised a small militia
and crossed the mountains to the east side and burned down the town of Cowee.
and crossed the mountains to the east side and burned down the town of Cowee.
Treaty of Augusta (1783)
On 1 November 1783, the pro-American camp of the Lower Creek nation signed the Treaty of Augusta with Georgia, ceding their claims
to territory which roughly comprises the modern counties of Oconee, Franklin,
Banks, Barrow, Clarke, Jackson, Stephens, Washington, Greene, Hancock, Johnson,
and Montgomery, plus parts of surrounding counties. Georgians referred to this region as the Oconee Country, after the tribe . This enraged McGillivray, who wanted to keep
fighting; he burned the houses of the leaders responsible and sent warriors to
raid Georgia settlements.
to territory which roughly comprises the modern counties of Oconee, Franklin,
Banks, Barrow, Clarke, Jackson, Stephens, Washington, Greene, Hancock, Johnson,
and Montgomery, plus parts of surrounding counties. Georgians referred to this region as the Oconee Country, after the tribe . This enraged McGillivray, who wanted to keep
fighting; he burned the houses of the leaders responsible and sent warriors to
raid Georgia settlements.
Treaty of French Lick
The Chickasaw signed the Treaty of French Lick with the new United States of America
on 6 November 1783 and never again took up arms against it. The Lower Cherokee
were also present at the conference and apparently made some sort of agreement
to cease their attacks on the Cumberland for after this Americans settlements
in the area began to grow again.
on 6 November 1783 and never again took up arms against it. The Lower Cherokee
were also present at the conference and apparently made some sort of agreement
to cease their attacks on the Cumberland for after this Americans settlements
in the area began to grow again.
Post-Revolution phase: New directions (1783-1788)
The Spanish now held East
Florida and West Florida in addition to Louisiana, Tejas, Nuevo Mexico, and
Nueva California. Partly to hold the
Americans at bay and party to regain lost parts of La Florida, they armed and
supplied the Southern Indians both to curry favor and to encourage them to turn
their weapons on the frontier settlements.
Florida and West Florida in addition to Louisiana, Tejas, Nuevo Mexico, and
Nueva California. Partly to hold the
Americans at bay and party to regain lost parts of La Florida, they armed and
supplied the Southern Indians both to curry favor and to encourage them to turn
their weapons on the frontier settlements.
Coldwater
Town
Town
The settlement of Coldwater was founded by a party of
French traders who had come down for the Wabash to set up a trading center in
1783. It sat a few miles below the foot of the thirty-five mile long Muscle
Shoals, near the mouth of Coldwater Creek and about three hundred yards back
from the Tennessee River, close the site of the modern Tuscumbia, Alabama.
French traders who had come down for the Wabash to set up a trading center in
1783. It sat a few miles below the foot of the thirty-five mile long Muscle
Shoals, near the mouth of Coldwater Creek and about three hundred yards back
from the Tennessee River, close the site of the modern Tuscumbia, Alabama.
For the next couple of years, trade was all the French
did, but then, in 1785, the business changed hands. The new owners not
only added firearms, powder, and shot to their wares, they recruited a garrison
from the Cherokee of the Lower Towns and the Upper Creek. They traded
arms to both those nations as well and encouraged them to defend their
territory.
did, but then, in 1785, the business changed hands. The new owners not
only added firearms, powder, and shot to their wares, they recruited a garrison
from the Cherokee of the Lower Towns and the Upper Creek. They traded
arms to both those nations as well and encouraged them to defend their
territory.
Spanish
Indian treaties
Indian treaties
Largely due to the efforts of Alex McGillivray,
the Spanish (in the persons of Arturo O’Neill, governor of West Florida and Estevan Miro, governor of
Louisiana) signed the Treaty of Pensacola for alliance and commerce with the
Upper Creek and the Lower Cherokee on 30 May 1784.
the Spanish (in the persons of Arturo O’Neill, governor of West Florida and Estevan Miro, governor of
Louisiana) signed the Treaty of Pensacola for alliance and commerce with the
Upper Creek and the Lower Cherokee on 30 May 1784.
On 22 June 1784, O’Neill and Miro signed the Treaty of
Mobile, likewise for alliance and commerce, with the Choctaw and the
Alabama. The Chickasaw, also at this
conference, refused to sign because of their treaty with the Americans.
With
the signing of these two treaties, McDonald and Ross relocated to
Turkeytown to consolidate their efforts and business with those of
Campbell closer to their Spanish suppliers and to the British trading
house of Panton, Lesley, and Company in Pensacola.
Mobile, likewise for alliance and commerce, with the Choctaw and the
Alabama. The Chickasaw, also at this
conference, refused to sign because of their treaty with the Americans.
With
the signing of these two treaties, McDonald and Ross relocated to
Turkeytown to consolidate their efforts and business with those of
Campbell closer to their Spanish suppliers and to the British trading
house of Panton, Lesley, and Company in Pensacola.
Unquiet Western frontier
With
these assurances of
support, the Cherokee of the Lower Towns renewed raiding the
Overmountain
settlements that summer. These remained only sporadic until the fall,
when an incident between one of the settlers, James Hubbard, and a noted
Cherokee
leader in the Overhill Towns, Noonday, brought the younger Overhill
warriors
into the fight and incited them all to more violence. This could be
considered the start of a Southwest Indian War, fought by the Cherokee
and later the Creek too.
these assurances of
support, the Cherokee of the Lower Towns renewed raiding the
Overmountain
settlements that summer. These remained only sporadic until the fall,
when an incident between one of the settlers, James Hubbard, and a noted
Cherokee
leader in the Overhill Towns, Noonday, brought the younger Overhill
warriors
into the fight and incited them all to more violence. This could be
considered the start of a Southwest Indian War, fought by the Cherokee
and later the Creek too.
Towards an Indian alliance
Sponsored by the Spanish,
Running Water Town hosted a grand council of western nations and tribes in the summer of 1785 to
formulate a strategy for resisting encroachment by settlers from the new United
States. Beside the Lower Cherokee, the Upper Creek and
Choctaw attended from the South, while the Shawnee, Lenape, Mingo, Miami,
Illinois, Wyandot, Ottawa, Kickapoo, Kaskaskia, Odawa, Potawotami, Ojibwe,
Wabash Confederacy, and, of course, the Iroquois League, plus a few others,
came from the North.
Running Water Town hosted a grand council of western nations and tribes in the summer of 1785 to
formulate a strategy for resisting encroachment by settlers from the new United
States. Beside the Lower Cherokee, the Upper Creek and
Choctaw attended from the South, while the Shawnee, Lenape, Mingo, Miami,
Illinois, Wyandot, Ottawa, Kickapoo, Kaskaskia, Odawa, Potawotami, Ojibwe,
Wabash Confederacy, and, of course, the Iroquois League, plus a few others,
came from the North.
The same parties met again
under sponsorship of the British at Detroit in the fall of 1785. The
parties at these two councils agreed among themselves and with their sponsors
to deal with the Americans as a unit rather than being picked off piece by piece. This
laid the groundwork for the confederacy formally established the next year.
under sponsorship of the British at Detroit in the fall of 1785. The
parties at these two councils agreed among themselves and with their sponsors
to deal with the Americans as a unit rather than being picked off piece by piece. This
laid the groundwork for the confederacy formally established the next year.
Free Republic of Franklin
In May 1785, the settlements of the Overmountainregion, then comprising four counties of western North Carolina, petitioned the
Congress of the Confederation to be recognized as the “State of
Franklin”.
Even though their petition failed to receive the
two-thirds votes necessary to qualify, they proceeded to organize what amounted
to a secessionist government, holding their first “state” assembly in December
1785. One of their chief motives was to retain the foothold they had recently
gained in the Cumberland Basin. The
Cumberland settlements were included in the government, but being
separated by a wide stretch of hostile Cherokee territory were almost
completely autonomous.
two-thirds votes necessary to qualify, they proceeded to organize what amounted
to a secessionist government, holding their first “state” assembly in December
1785. One of their chief motives was to retain the foothold they had recently
gained in the Cumberland Basin. The
Cumberland settlements were included in the government, but being
separated by a wide stretch of hostile Cherokee territory were almost
completely autonomous.
Treaty of
Dumplin Creek
Dumplin Creek
One of the first acts of the new State of Franklin was
to negotiate with the Overhill Towns the Treaty of Dumplin Creek signed on 10 June 1985, ceding the
“territory south of the French Broad and Holston Rivers and west of
the Big Pigeon River and east of the ridge dividing Little River from
the Tennessee River” to the State of Franklin.
to negotiate with the Overhill Towns the Treaty of Dumplin Creek signed on 10 June 1985, ceding the
“territory south of the French Broad and Holston Rivers and west of
the Big Pigeon River and east of the ridge dividing Little River from
the Tennessee River” to the State of Franklin.
Northwest
Indian War (1785-1795)
Indian War (1785-1795)
In the autumn of 1785, after a conference at Detroit,
the Indians of the Northwest—Wyandot, Shawnee, Lenape, Ottawa, Mohawk, Miami,
Wabash Confederacy—began frequent small raids against settlements west and
north of the Ohio River and in Kentucky.
In the next year, these raids by small war parties had grown into
invasions by small armies.
the Indians of the Northwest—Wyandot, Shawnee, Lenape, Ottawa, Mohawk, Miami,
Wabash Confederacy—began frequent small raids against settlements west and
north of the Ohio River and in Kentucky.
In the next year, these raids by small war parties had grown into
invasions by small armies.
As allies of the Shawnee and later as full
members of the Western Confederacy, Cherokee warriors of the three
previously-mentioned bands in the Northwest took an active part, roughly
proportional to the degree of activity by the Shawnee in their own area of
operations. They participated in nearly
every war party and every major action.
Though
most of the action took place in the Northwest, especially the Ohio
County, a significant amount occurred in Kentucky, part of the
Southwest. From the mid-1780's till the end of the decade, for
instance, raiders killed nearly fifteen hundred settlers.
Treaty of Galphinton
As
if McGillivray and his people were not angered enough, on 12 November
1785, Georgia officials signed a new treaty with a few compliant Lower Creek micos
(headmen) in which the latter ceded the land between the Altamaha and
St. Mary's Rivers, and from the head of the latter to the Oconee River.
They called this wide stretch of land the Tallassee Country, after the tribe which lived there.
members of the Western Confederacy, Cherokee warriors of the three
previously-mentioned bands in the Northwest took an active part, roughly
proportional to the degree of activity by the Shawnee in their own area of
operations. They participated in nearly
every war party and every major action.
Though
most of the action took place in the Northwest, especially the Ohio
County, a significant amount occurred in Kentucky, part of the
Southwest. From the mid-1780's till the end of the decade, for
instance, raiders killed nearly fifteen hundred settlers.
Treaty of Galphinton
As
if McGillivray and his people were not angered enough, on 12 November
1785, Georgia officials signed a new treaty with a few compliant Lower Creek micos
(headmen) in which the latter ceded the land between the Altamaha and
St. Mary's Rivers, and from the head of the latter to the Oconee River.
They called this wide stretch of land the Tallassee Country, after the tribe which lived there.
Treaty of Hopewell
The Cherokee in the Overhill, Middle, Hill, and Valley
Towns signed a treaty with the new United States government, the 28 November
1785 Treaty of Hopewell,
but in their case it was a treaty made under duress, the frontier colonials by
this time having spread further along the Holston and onto the French Broad.
Several leaders from the Lower Cherokee signed, including two from Chickamauga
Town (which had been rebuilt) and one from Stecoyee.
Towns signed a treaty with the new United States government, the 28 November
1785 Treaty of Hopewell,
but in their case it was a treaty made under duress, the frontier colonials by
this time having spread further along the Holston and onto the French Broad.
Several leaders from the Lower Cherokee signed, including two from Chickamauga
Town (which had been rebuilt) and one from Stecoyee.
Houston County, Georgia
After
the Hopewell Treaty, the legislature of the
State of Georgia, which claimed all of what became Mississippi Territory
(everything between the 31st and 35th parallels from its
own borders west to the Mississippi River) created Houston County, to
take in
the Great Bend of the Tennessee River. The project was a joint venture
between Georgia and Franklin. To stake their claim, Valentine Sevier
and ninety men went south to what
is now South Pittsburg in Marion County, Tennessee, and built a
stockaded
settlement and blockhouse in early December 1785.
the Hopewell Treaty, the legislature of the
State of Georgia, which claimed all of what became Mississippi Territory
(everything between the 31st and 35th parallels from its
own borders west to the Mississippi River) created Houston County, to
take in
the Great Bend of the Tennessee River. The project was a joint venture
between Georgia and Franklin. To stake their claim, Valentine Sevier
and ninety men went south to what
is now South Pittsburg in Marion County, Tennessee, and built a
stockaded
settlement and blockhouse in early December 1785.
The chosen location lay midway between Nickajack and
Long Island towns of the Lower Cherokee. By mid-January, the pioneers tired of the
constant life-or-death fighting and ended the project. The Houston County project collapsed, leaving
the name open for the current Houston County, Georgia established in 1821.
Long Island towns of the Lower Cherokee. By mid-January, the pioneers tired of the
constant life-or-death fighting and ended the project. The Houston County project collapsed, leaving
the name open for the current Houston County, Georgia established in 1821.
In order to prevent a reoccurrence, the Cherokee
established the town of Crowmocker
on Battle Creek near the site of the Civil War-era Fort McCook.
established the town of Crowmocker
on Battle Creek near the site of the Civil War-era Fort McCook.
Cherokee war of 1786
Conflict
erupted largely because of dissatisfaction over the Treaty of Hopewell,
the flames of which were fanned by Dragging Canoe. In the east, it
primarily involved warriors from the Overhill and Valley Towns against
Franklin, which the Lower Towns to the west primarily raided the
Cumberland.
In
large part elated by their crushing defeat of the attempted Houston
County, Cherokee warriors from the Lower Towns raided the Franklin
settlements in small parties throughout the spring of 1786.
large part elated by their crushing defeat of the attempted Houston
County, Cherokee warriors from the Lower Towns raided the Franklin
settlements in small parties throughout the spring of 1786.
Due to a combination of resentment of Americans settling on the wrong side of the treaty line and pressure from the Creek, warriors of the Overhill Towns picked up the tomahawk in early July, led by John Watts. They were supported by Cherokee of the Valley Towns, and according to some accounts the army was as big as a thousand strong. First attacking a homestead on Beaver Creek near the newly established White's Fort (at
the modern Knoxville, Tennessee) on 20 July, they dispersed into small
parties raiding the upper Holston and other parts of Franklin.
Throughout the summer of 1786, Dragging Canoe and his warriors along with a large contingent of Creek raided
the Cumberland region, with several parties raiding well into Kentucky.
One such occasion that summer was notable for the fact that the raiding
party was led by none other than Hanging Maw of Coyatee, who was
supposedly friendly at the time.
the modern Knoxville, Tennessee) on 20 July, they dispersed into small
parties raiding the upper Holston and other parts of Franklin.
Throughout the summer of 1786, Dragging Canoe and his warriors along with a large contingent of Creek raided
the Cumberland region, with several parties raiding well into Kentucky.
One such occasion that summer was notable for the fact that the raiding
party was led by none other than Hanging Maw of Coyatee, who was
supposedly friendly at the time.
After the rise of the "local" Cherokee, Sevier responded with a force under joint command of Alexander Outlaw and William Cocke,
which drove off the raiders from the Holston before marching for
Coyatee near the mouth of the Little Tennessee. Once there, they burned
the crops and the town's council house. Meanwhile, he himself led
another expedition across the mountains to attack the Valley Towns on
the headwaters of the Hiwassee.
which drove off the raiders from the Holston before marching for
Coyatee near the mouth of the Little Tennessee. Once there, they burned
the crops and the town's council house. Meanwhile, he himself led
another expedition across the mountains to attack the Valley Towns on
the headwaters of the Hiwassee.
Treaty of Coyatee
The
end result was the Treaty of Coyatee on 3 August 1786, in which the
Free Republic of Franklin forced Corntassel, Hanging Maw, Watts, and the
other Overhill leaders to cede the remaining land between the boundary
set by the Dumplin treaty and the Little Tennessee River to Franklin.
end result was the Treaty of Coyatee on 3 August 1786, in which the
Free Republic of Franklin forced Corntassel, Hanging Maw, Watts, and the
other Overhill leaders to cede the remaining land between the boundary
set by the Dumplin treaty and the Little Tennessee River to Franklin.
The
Franklinites could now shift military forces to Middle Tennessee in
response to increasing frequency of attacks by both the Lower Cherokee
and the Upper Creek.
Franklinites could now shift military forces to Middle Tennessee in
response to increasing frequency of attacks by both the Lower Cherokee
and the Upper Creek.
The Spanish Conspiracy
Starting in 1786, the leaders of the State of Franklin
and the Cumberland District began secret negotiations with Esteban
Rodriguez Miro, governor of Spanish Louisiana, to deliver their regions to
the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire.
Those involved included James Robertson, Daniel Smith,and the Cumberland District began secret negotiations with Esteban
Rodriguez Miro, governor of Spanish Louisiana, to deliver their regions to
the jurisdiction of the Spanish Empire.
and Anthony Bledsoe of the Cumberland District, John Sevier and Joseph Martin
of the State of Franklin, James White, recently-appointed American
Superintendent for Southern Indian Affairs (replacing Thomas Brown), and James
Wilkinson of Kentucky.
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The irony lay in the fact that the Spanish backed the
Cherokee and Creek harassing their territories. Their main counterpart on
the Spanish side in New Orleans was Diego de Gardoqui. Gardoqui’s negotiations with Wilkinson,
initiated by the latter, to bring Kentucky into the Spanish orbit also were
separate but simultaneous.
Cherokee and Creek harassing their territories. Their main counterpart on
the Spanish side in New Orleans was Diego de Gardoqui. Gardoqui’s negotiations with Wilkinson,
initiated by the latter, to bring Kentucky into the Spanish orbit also were
separate but simultaneous.
The “conspiracy” went as far as the Franklin and
Cumberland officials promising to take the oath of loyalty to Spain and
renounce allegiance to any other nation. Robertson even successfully petitioned
the North Carolina assembly create the “Miro District” out of the three
Cumberland counties (Davidson, Sumner, Tennessee). There was a convention held
in the failing State of Franklin on the question, and those present voted in
its favor.
Cumberland officials promising to take the oath of loyalty to Spain and
renounce allegiance to any other nation. Robertson even successfully petitioned
the North Carolina assembly create the “Miro District” out of the three
Cumberland counties (Davidson, Sumner, Tennessee). There was a convention held
in the failing State of Franklin on the question, and those present voted in
its favor.
A large part of their motivation, besides the desire
to secede from North Carolina, was the hope that this course of action would
bring relief from Indian attacks. The series of negotiations involved
McGillivray, with Roberston and Bledsoe writing him of the Miro District's
peaceful intentions toward the Creek and simultaneously sending White as
emissary to Gardoqui to convey news of their overture.
to secede from North Carolina, was the hope that this course of action would
bring relief from Indian attacks. The series of negotiations involved
McGillivray, with Roberston and Bledsoe writing him of the Miro District's
peaceful intentions toward the Creek and simultaneously sending White as
emissary to Gardoqui to convey news of their overture.
Formation of the Western Confederacy
In addition to the small bands still operating with
the Shawnee, Wyandot-Mingo, and Lenape in the Northwest, a large contingent of
Cherokee led by The Glass (Tagwadihi) attended and took an
active role in a grand council of western tribes (Six Nations Iroquois,
Wyandot, Lenape, Shawnee, Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawotami, Twigtis, Wabash
Confedracy, and, of course, the Cherokee themselves) lasting 28
November–18 December 1786 in the Wyandot town of Upper Sandusky just
south of the British
capital of Detroit. British agents attended, and zealous warriors
brought recently acquired scalps.
the Shawnee, Wyandot-Mingo, and Lenape in the Northwest, a large contingent of
Cherokee led by The Glass (Tagwadihi) attended and took an
active role in a grand council of western tribes (Six Nations Iroquois,
Wyandot, Lenape, Shawnee, Odawa, Ojibwe, Potawotami, Twigtis, Wabash
Confedracy, and, of course, the Cherokee themselves) lasting 28
November–18 December 1786 in the Wyandot town of Upper Sandusky just
south of the British
capital of Detroit. British agents attended, and zealous warriors
brought recently acquired scalps.
This meeting, initiated by Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea),
the Mohawk leader
who was head chief of the Iroquois Six Nations and like Dragging Canoe fought
on the side of the British during the American Revolution, led to the formation
of the Western Confederacy to resist American incursions into
the Old Northwest.
the Mohawk leader
who was head chief of the Iroquois Six Nations and like Dragging Canoe fought
on the side of the British during the American Revolution, led to the formation
of the Western Confederacy to resist American incursions into
the Old Northwest.
According to John Norton (Teyoninhokovrawen),
Brant’s adopted son, it was here that The Glass formed a friendship with his
adopted father that lasted well into the 19th century. He apparently served as
Dragging Canoe's envoy to the Iroquois as the latter's brothers did to McKee
and to the Shawnee.
Brant’s adopted son, it was here that The Glass formed a friendship with his
adopted father that lasted well into the 19th century. He apparently served as
Dragging Canoe's envoy to the Iroquois as the latter's brothers did to McKee
and to the Shawnee.
The passage of the Northwest Ordinance by
the Congress of the Confederation (subsequently affirmed by the United
States Congress) in 1787, establishing the Northwest Territory and
essentially giving away the land upon which they lived, only exacerbated the
resentment of the tribes in the region.
the Congress of the Confederation (subsequently affirmed by the United
States Congress) in 1787, establishing the Northwest Territory and
essentially giving away the land upon which they lived, only exacerbated the
resentment of the tribes in the region.
Trouble with Franklin and Kentucky
In
early 1787, encroachments by American settlers became so great that the
Overhill Towns held a council on whether to completely abandon their
homes on the Little Tennessee for more removed locations to the west.
They elected to stay, but the crisis provoked another rise in the
small-scale raiding which never really ceased completely. The situation
of the Overhill Cherokee was so bad that refugees appeared in Creek towns,
and the Chickasaw threatened to break the treaty of 1783 and go on the
warpath if something were not done to alleviate the situation.
Though they provided auxiliary support against Franklin, the Cherokee of
the Lower Towns, playing their role as members of the confederacy, had
made Kentucky the target of most of their efforts. A sally from the
Kentucky militia led by John Logan mistakenly attacked a hunting party
from the Overhill Towns and killed several of its members. In their
non-apology to Chota, the Kentuckians warned the Overhill Towns to
control Dragging Canoe's warriors or there would be widespread
indiscriminate revenge.
Coldwater war, 1785-1787
French traders from the Wabash and Illinois Rivers plied the Tennessee, trading goods to the Creek
and
the Cherokee, including arms, ammo, and powder. They also promoted the
idea of proactive territorial self-defense vis-a-vis the American
frontier settlements.
Around 1785, some of these traders took over the
post at Coldwater. This new management began covertly
gathering Cherokee and Creek warriors into the town, whom they then
encouraged to attack the American settlements along the Cumberland and its
environs. The fighting contingent eventually numbered approximately nine
Frenchmen, thirty-five Cherokee, and ten Creek.
and
the Cherokee, including arms, ammo, and powder. They also promoted the
idea of proactive territorial self-defense vis-a-vis the American
frontier settlements.
Around 1785, some of these traders took over the
post at Coldwater. This new management began covertly
gathering Cherokee and Creek warriors into the town, whom they then
encouraged to attack the American settlements along the Cumberland and its
environs. The fighting contingent eventually numbered approximately nine
Frenchmen, thirty-five Cherokee, and ten Creek.
Because the townsite was well-hidden and its presence
unannounced, Robertson, commander of the militia in Davidson and Sumner
Counties, at first accused the Lower Cherokee of the new offensives. In 1787, he marched his men to their borders
in a show of force, but without an actual attack, then sent an offer of peace
to Running Water.
unannounced, Robertson, commander of the militia in Davidson and Sumner
Counties, at first accused the Lower Cherokee of the new offensives. In 1787, he marched his men to their borders
in a show of force, but without an actual attack, then sent an offer of peace
to Running Water.
In answer, Dragging Canoe sent a delegation of leaders
led by Little Owl to Nashville under a flag of truce to explain that his
Cherokee were not the responsible parties.
Meanwhile, the attacks continued.
led by Little Owl to Nashville under a flag of truce to explain that his
Cherokee were not the responsible parties.
Meanwhile, the attacks continued.
At the time of the conference in Nashville, two
Chickasaw out hunting game along the Tennessee in the vicinity of Muscle Shoals
chanced upon Coldwater Town, where they were warmly received and spent the
night. Upon returning home to Chickasaw Bluffs, now (Memphis, Tennessee), they
immediately informed their head man, Piomingo, of their discovery.
Piomingo then sent runners to Nashville.
Chickasaw out hunting game along the Tennessee in the vicinity of Muscle Shoals
chanced upon Coldwater Town, where they were warmly received and spent the
night. Upon returning home to Chickasaw Bluffs, now (Memphis, Tennessee), they
immediately informed their head man, Piomingo, of their discovery.
Piomingo then sent runners to Nashville.
Just after these runners had arrived in Nashville, a
war party attacked one of its outlying settlements, killing Robertson’s brother
Mark. In response, Robertson raised a group of one hundred fifty volunteers and
proceeded south by a circuitous land route, guided by two Chickasaw, on 13
June.
war party attacked one of its outlying settlements, killing Robertson’s brother
Mark. In response, Robertson raised a group of one hundred fifty volunteers and
proceeded south by a circuitous land route, guided by two Chickasaw, on 13
June.
Somehow catching the town off-guard despite the fact
they knew Robertson’s force was approaching, they chased its would-be defenders
to the river, killing about half of them and wounding many of the rest. They
then gathered all the trade goods in the town to be shipped to Nashville by
boat, burned the town, and departed.
they knew Robertson’s force was approaching, they chased its would-be defenders
to the river, killing about half of them and wounding many of the rest. They
then gathered all the trade goods in the town to be shipped to Nashville by
boat, burned the town, and departed.
After the wars, it became the site of Colbert’s Ferry,
owned by Chickasaw leader George Colbert, the crossing place over the Tennessee
River of the Natchez Trace.
owned by Chickasaw leader George Colbert, the crossing place over the Tennessee
River of the Natchez Trace.
Because of the perceived insult of the incursion
against Coldwater so near to their territory, the Creek took up the hatchet
against the Cumberland settlements afterwards.
They continued their attacks until 1789, but the Cherokee did not join
them for this round due partly to internal matters but more because of trouble
from the State of Franklin.
against Coldwater so near to their territory, the Creek took up the hatchet
against the Cumberland settlements afterwards.
They continued their attacks until 1789, but the Cherokee did not join
them for this round due partly to internal matters but more because of trouble
from the State of Franklin.
Post-Revolution phase: Peak of Cherokee
influence (1788-1792)
influence (1788-1792)
Dragging Canoe’s last years, 1788–1792, were the peak
of his influence and that of the rest of the Lower Cherokee, among the other
Cherokee and among other Indian nations, both south and north, as well as with
the Spanish of Pensacola, Mobile, and New Orleans, and the British in Detroit.
He also sent regular diplomatic envoys to negotiations in Nashville,
Jonesborough then Knoxville, and Philadelphia.
of his influence and that of the rest of the Lower Cherokee, among the other
Cherokee and among other Indian nations, both south and north, as well as with
the Spanish of Pensacola, Mobile, and New Orleans, and the British in Detroit.
He also sent regular diplomatic envoys to negotiations in Nashville,
Jonesborough then Knoxville, and Philadelphia.
Chiksika's band of Shawnee
A band of thirteen Shawnee arrived in Running Water in
early 1788 after spending several months hunting in the Missouri River country,
led by Chiksika, a leader contemporary with the famous Blue
Jacket (Weyapiersenwah). In the band was his brother, the later
leader Tecumseh.
early 1788 after spending several months hunting in the Missouri River country,
led by Chiksika, a leader contemporary with the famous Blue
Jacket (Weyapiersenwah). In the band was his brother, the later
leader Tecumseh.
Their mother, a Creek, had left the north (her
husband died at the Battle of Point Pleasant, the only major action
of Dunmore's War, in 1774) and gone to live in her old town because without her
husband she was homesick. The town was now near those of the Cherokee in the
Five Lower Towns. Their mother had died, but Chiksika's Cherokee wife and his
daughter were living at nearby Running Water Town, so they stayed.
husband died at the Battle of Point Pleasant, the only major action
of Dunmore's War, in 1774) and gone to live in her old town because without her
husband she was homesick. The town was now near those of the Cherokee in the
Five Lower Towns. Their mother had died, but Chiksika's Cherokee wife and his
daughter were living at nearby Running Water Town, so they stayed.
They were warmly received by the Cherokee warriors,
and, based out of Running Water, they participated in and conducted raids and
other actions, in some of which Cherokee warriors participated (most notably
Bob Benge). Chiksika was killed in one of the actions in which their band took
part in February, resulting in Tecumseh becoming leader of the small Shawnee
band, gaining his first experiences as a leader in warfare.
and, based out of Running Water, they participated in and conducted raids and
other actions, in some of which Cherokee warriors participated (most notably
Bob Benge). Chiksika was killed in one of the actions in which their band took
part in February, resulting in Tecumseh becoming leader of the small Shawnee
band, gaining his first experiences as a leader in warfare.
The band remained at Running Water until late 1790,
then returned north.
then returned north.
Cherokee-Franklin
war of 1788 (1788-1789)
war of 1788 (1788-1789)
This year the conflict between the Cherokee and the
Americans broke out into its bloodiest and most widespread since 1776,
beginning in late spring and lasting well into the beginning of the following
year. One important feature of this conflict was the introduction of large numbers of Creek warriors fighting in Cherokee war parties, which continued until the end of the Cherokee wars.
Americans broke out into its bloodiest and most widespread since 1776,
beginning in late spring and lasting well into the beginning of the following
year. One important feature of this conflict was the introduction of large numbers of Creek warriors fighting in Cherokee war parties, which continued until the end of the Cherokee wars.
Massacre of the Kirk family
In May 1788, a party of Cherokee from Chilhowee came
to the house of John Kirk’s family on Little River, while he and his oldest
son, John Jr., were out. When Kirk and John Jr. returned, they found the other
eleven members of their family dead and scalped.
to the house of John Kirk’s family on Little River, while he and his oldest
son, John Jr., were out. When Kirk and John Jr. returned, they found the other
eleven members of their family dead and scalped.
Massacre of the Brown family
After a preliminary trip to the Cumberland at the end
of which he left two of his sons to begin clearing the plot of land at the
mouth of White's Creek, James Brown returned to North Carolina to fetch the
rest of the family, with whom he departed Long-Island-on-the-Holston by boat in
May 1788. When they passed by Tuskegee Island five days later, Bloody Fellow
stopped them, looked around the boat, then let them proceed, meanwhile sending
messengers ahead to Running Water.
Upon the family’s arrival at Nickajack, a party ofof which he left two of his sons to begin clearing the plot of land at the
mouth of White's Creek, James Brown returned to North Carolina to fetch the
rest of the family, with whom he departed Long-Island-on-the-Holston by boat in
May 1788. When they passed by Tuskegee Island five days later, Bloody Fellow
stopped them, looked around the boat, then let them proceed, meanwhile sending
messengers ahead to Running Water.
forty under mixed-blood John Vann boarded the boat and killed Col. Brown, his
two older sons on the boat, and five other young men travelling with the
family. Mrs. Brown, the two younger
sons, and three daughters were taken prisoner and distributed to different
families.
When he learned of the massacre the following
day, The Breath (Unlita), Nickajack's headman, was
seriously displeased. He later adopted into his own family the Browns’ son
Joseph as a son, who had been originally given to Kitegisky (Tsiagatali),
who had first adopted him as a brother, treating him well, and of whom Joseph
had fond memories in later years.
day, The Breath (Unlita), Nickajack's headman, was
seriously displeased. He later adopted into his own family the Browns’ son
Joseph as a son, who had been originally given to Kitegisky (Tsiagatali),
who had first adopted him as a brother, treating him well, and of whom Joseph
had fond memories in later years.
Mrs. Brown and one of her daughters were given to the Creek and ended up in the personal household of Alex McGillivray.
George, the elder of the surviving sons, also ended up with the Creek, but
elsewhere. Another daughter went to a Cherokee nearby Nickajack and the third
to a Cherokee in Crow Town.
George, the elder of the surviving sons, also ended up with the Creek, but
elsewhere. Another daughter went to a Cherokee nearby Nickajack and the third
to a Cherokee in Crow Town.
Franklinite invasion of the Overhill Towns
At the
beginning of June 1788, John Sevier, now no longer governor of the State of
Franklin, raised a hundred volunteers and set out for the Overhill Towns. After a brief stop at the Little Tennessee,
the group went to Great Hiwassee and burned it to the ground. Then they returned to the Little Tennessee
and burned down Tallasee.
beginning of June 1788, John Sevier, now no longer governor of the State of
Franklin, raised a hundred volunteers and set out for the Overhill Towns. After a brief stop at the Little Tennessee,
the group went to Great Hiwassee and burned it to the ground. Then they returned to the Little Tennessee
and burned down Tallasee.
Returning to Chota, Sevier send a detachment under
James Hubbard to Chilhowee to punish those responsible for the Kirk massacre,
John Kirk Jr. among them. Hubbard brought along Corntassel and Hanging Man from
Chota.
James Hubbard to Chilhowee to punish those responsible for the Kirk massacre,
John Kirk Jr. among them. Hubbard brought along Corntassel and Hanging Man from
Chota.
At Chilhowee, Hubbard raised a flag of truce, took
Corntassel and Hanging Man to the house of Abraham, still headman of Chilhowee,
who was there with his son, also bringing along Long Fellow and Fool Warrior.
Hubbard posted guards at the door and windows of the cabin, and gave John Kirk
Jr. a tomahawk to get his revenge.
The murder of the pacifist Overhill chiefs under aCorntassel and Hanging Man to the house of Abraham, still headman of Chilhowee,
who was there with his son, also bringing along Long Fellow and Fool Warrior.
Hubbard posted guards at the door and windows of the cabin, and gave John Kirk
Jr. a tomahawk to get his revenge.
flag of truce angered the entire Cherokee nation and resulted in those
previously reluctant taking the warpath, an increase in hostility that lasted
for several months. Doublehead (Taltsuska), Corntassel’s brother, was particularly
incensed. Not only did the Cherokee from the Overhill
Towns join those from the Lower Towns on the warpath, so too did a large number
of Creek warriors, outraged at the senseless murders.
Highlighting the seriousness of the matter, Dragging
Canoe came in to address the general council of the Nation, now meeting at Ustanali on the Coosawattee River (one
of the former Lower Towns on the Keowee River relocated to the vicinity of
Calhoun, Georgia) to which the seat of the council had been moved. The council there elected Little Turkey (Kanagita)
as First Beloved Man.
Canoe came in to address the general council of the Nation, now meeting at Ustanali on the Coosawattee River (one
of the former Lower Towns on the Keowee River relocated to the vicinity of
Calhoun, Georgia) to which the seat of the council had been moved. The council there elected Little Turkey (Kanagita)
as First Beloved Man.
This election was contested by Hanging Maw of Coyatee,
who had been elected traditional chief headman of the Overhill Towns.
who had been elected traditional chief headman of the Overhill Towns.
Both men had
been among those who originally followed Dragging Canoe into the southwest of
the nation, with Hanging Maw known to have been on the warpath at least as late
as 1786.
been among those who originally followed Dragging Canoe into the southwest of
the nation, with Hanging Maw known to have been on the warpath at least as late
as 1786.
Siege of Houston's Station
In early August 1788, the commander of the garrison at
Houston's Station (near the present Maryville, Tennessee) received word that a
Cherokee force of nearly five hundred was planning to attack his position. He
therefore sent a large reconnaissance patrol to the Overhill Towns.
Houston's Station (near the present Maryville, Tennessee) received word that a
Cherokee force of nearly five hundred was planning to attack his position. He
therefore sent a large reconnaissance patrol to the Overhill Towns.
Stopping in the town of Citico on the south side of
the Little Tennessee, which they found deserted, the patrol scattered
throughout the town's orchard and began gathering fruit. Six of them died in
the first fusillade, another ten while attempting to escape across the river.
the Little Tennessee, which they found deserted, the patrol scattered
throughout the town's orchard and began gathering fruit. Six of them died in
the first fusillade, another ten while attempting to escape across the river.
With the loss of those men, the garrison at Houston’s
Station was seriously beleaguered. Only the arrival of a relief force under
John Sevier saved the fort from being overrun and its inhabitants
slaughtered. With the garrison joining
his force, Sevier marched to the Little Tennessee and burned Chilhowee.
Station was seriously beleaguered. Only the arrival of a relief force under
John Sevier saved the fort from being overrun and its inhabitants
slaughtered. With the garrison joining
his force, Sevier marched to the Little Tennessee and burned Chilhowee.
Attempted invasion of the Lower Towns
In August 1788, Joseph Martin (who was married toBetsy, daughter of Nancy Ward, and living at Chota), with 500 men, marched to
the Chickamauga area, intending to penetrate the edge of the Cumberland
Mountains to get to the Five Lower Towns. He sent a detachment to secure the
pass over the foot of Lookout Mountain (Atalidandaganu),
which was ambushed and routed by a large party of Dragging Canoe's warriors,
with the Cherokee in hot pursuit.
One of the participants later referred to the spot as
“the place where we made the Virginians turn their backs”. According to one of the participants on the
other side, Dragging Canoe, John Watts, Bloody Fellow, Kitegisky, The Glass,
Little Owl, and Dick Justice were all present at the encounter.
“the place where we made the Virginians turn their backs”. According to one of the participants on the
other side, Dragging Canoe, John Watts, Bloody Fellow, Kitegisky, The Glass,
Little Owl, and Dick Justice were all present at the encounter.
The army of Cherokee warriors Dragging Canoe raised in
response reached three thousand in total, split into warbands hundreds strong
each. One of these warbands was headed by John Watts (Kunnessee-i, aka
“Young Tassel”) with Bloody Fellow, Kitegisky, and The Glass, and included a
young warrior named or Pathkiller (Nunnehidihi), later
known as The Ridge (Ganundalegi).
response reached three thousand in total, split into warbands hundreds strong
each. One of these warbands was headed by John Watts (Kunnessee-i, aka
“Young Tassel”) with Bloody Fellow, Kitegisky, and The Glass, and included a
young warrior named or Pathkiller (Nunnehidihi), later
known as The Ridge (Ganundalegi).
Battles of Gillespie’s
Station and others
Station and others
In October 1788, Watts’ band advanced across country
toward White’s Fort. Along the way, they attacked Gillespie’s Station on
the Holston River after capturing settlers who had left the enclosure to work
in the fields, storming the stockade when the defender's ammunition ran out,
killing the men and some of the women and taking twenty-eight women and
children prisoner.
toward White’s Fort. Along the way, they attacked Gillespie’s Station on
the Holston River after capturing settlers who had left the enclosure to work
in the fields, storming the stockade when the defender's ammunition ran out,
killing the men and some of the women and taking twenty-eight women and
children prisoner.
They then proceeded to attack White’s Fort and
Houston’s Station only to be beaten back. Afterwards, the warband wintered at
an encampment on the Flint River in present day Unicoi County, Tennessee as a
base of operations.
Houston’s Station only to be beaten back. Afterwards, the warband wintered at
an encampment on the Flint River in present day Unicoi County, Tennessee as a
base of operations.
An attack by another party against Sherrill’s Station
on Nolichucky River was driven off by a force directly commanded by Sevier
himself.
on Nolichucky River was driven off by a force directly commanded by Sevier
himself.
In response to the Cherokee incursions, punishment
attacks by the settlers’ militia increased. Troops under Sevier destroyed many
of the Middle and Valley Towns in North Carolina.
attacks by the settlers’ militia increased. Troops under Sevier destroyed many
of the Middle and Valley Towns in North Carolina.
At Ustalli, on the Hiwassee, the
population had been evacuated by Cherokee warriors led by Bob Benge,
who left a rearguard to ensure their escape. After lighting the town, Sevier
and his group pursued its fleeing inhabitants, but were ambushed at the mouth
of the Valley River by Benge's party.
population had been evacuated by Cherokee warriors led by Bob Benge,
who left a rearguard to ensure their escape. After lighting the town, Sevier
and his group pursued its fleeing inhabitants, but were ambushed at the mouth
of the Valley River by Benge's party.
From there they went to the village of Coota-cloo-hee (Gadakaluyi)
and proceeded to burn down its cornfields, but were chased off by 400 warriors
led by John Watts. Watts' army trailed
Sevier's all the way from Coota-cloo-hee back to the Franklin settlements,
attacking at random.
and proceeded to burn down its cornfields, but were chased off by 400 warriors
led by John Watts. Watts' army trailed
Sevier's all the way from Coota-cloo-hee back to the Franklin settlements,
attacking at random.
One result of the above destruction was that the
Overhill Cherokee and the refugees from other parts of the nation among them
all but completely abandoned the settlements on the Little Tennessee and
dispersed south and west, with Chota being virtually the only Overhill town
left with any inhabitants.
Overhill Cherokee and the refugees from other parts of the nation among them
all but completely abandoned the settlements on the Little Tennessee and
dispersed south and west, with Chota being virtually the only Overhill town
left with any inhabitants.
John Watts’ band on Flint Creek fell upon serious
misfortune early the next year. In early January 1789, they were surrounded by
a force under John Sevier that was equipped with grasshopper cannons. The
gunfire from the Cherokee was so intense, however, that Sevier abandoned his
heavy weapons and ordered a cavalry charge that led to savage hand-to-hand
fighting. Watt's band lost nearly 150 warriors.
misfortune early the next year. In early January 1789, they were surrounded by
a force under John Sevier that was equipped with grasshopper cannons. The
gunfire from the Cherokee was so intense, however, that Sevier abandoned his
heavy weapons and ordered a cavalry charge that led to savage hand-to-hand
fighting. Watt's band lost nearly 150 warriors.
Cherokee attacks upon the Franklin communities in small parties continued well into the spring.
Blow to the Western Confederacy
In January 1789, Arthur St. Clair,
American governor of the Northwest Territory, concluded two separate peace
treaties with members of the Western Confederacy. The first was with the
Iroquois, except for the Mohawk, and the other was with the Wyandot, Lenape,
Ottawa, Potawotami, Sauk (Azakiwaki),
and Ojibwa.
American governor of the Northwest Territory, concluded two separate peace
treaties with members of the Western Confederacy. The first was with the
Iroquois, except for the Mohawk, and the other was with the Wyandot, Lenape,
Ottawa, Potawotami, Sauk (Azakiwaki),
and Ojibwa.
The Mohawk, the Shawnee, the Miami (Myaamiaki), and the tribes of
the Wabash Confederacy, who had been doing most of the fighting,
not only refused to go along but became more aggressive, especially the Wabash
tribes.
the Wabash Confederacy, who had been doing most of the fighting,
not only refused to go along but became more aggressive, especially the Wabash
tribes.
Implosion of the Spanish Conspiracy
The scheme fell apart for two main reasons. The first was the dithering of the Spanish
government in Madrid. The second was the interception of a letter from Joseph
Martin which fell into the hands of the Georgia legislature in January 1789.
government in Madrid. The second was the interception of a letter from Joseph
Martin which fell into the hands of the Georgia legislature in January 1789.
In response, North Carolina, to which the western
counties in question belonged under the laws of the United States, took the
simple expedient of ceding the region to the federal government, which
established the Southwest Territory in May 1790, with William Blount
as governor as well as
simultaneously Superintendent for Southern Indian Affairs. The counties
in the Overmountain region were grouped together as the Washington
District while the counties in the Cumberland region became the Miro
District.
counties in question belonged under the laws of the United States, took the
simple expedient of ceding the region to the federal government, which
established the Southwest Territory in May 1790, with William Blount
as governor as well as
simultaneously Superintendent for Southern Indian Affairs. The counties
in the Overmountain region were grouped together as the Washington
District while the counties in the Cumberland region became the Miro
District.
(Miro District was the area around Nashville. Hamilton District, after 13 March 1793, was the green area around Knoxville. Washington District was the area in Upper East Tennessee.)
Wilkinson remained a paid Spanish agent until his
death in 1825, including his years as one of the top generals in the U.S. army,
and was involved in the Aaron Burr conspiracy. Ironically, he became the first
American governor of Louisiana Territory in 1803.
Council at Coweta
On 2 March 1789, the Lower Creek chief town of Coweta hosted a council between their division of the Creek Confederacy and the Cherokee. As town headman, John Galphin, half-blood son of former Indian Commissioner for the United States George Galphin,
presided. Dragging Canoe and Hanging Maw led the Cherokee delegation.
The representative of the two nations present agreed they trusted
neither the Americans nor the Spanish and drafted a letter to the
government of Great Britain pledging their loyalty in return for the
king's direct assistance. They promised that if this happened, then the
Mohawk, the Choctaw, and the Chickasaw would come over. Nothing ever
came of the petition, but the council is notable for this as well as for
where it took place.
Wilkinson remained a paid Spanish agent until his
death in 1825, including his years as one of the top generals in the U.S. army,
and was involved in the Aaron Burr conspiracy. Ironically, he became the first
American governor of Louisiana Territory in 1803.
Council at Coweta
On 2 March 1789, the Lower Creek chief town of Coweta hosted a council between their division of the Creek Confederacy and the Cherokee. As town headman, John Galphin, half-blood son of former Indian Commissioner for the United States George Galphin,
presided. Dragging Canoe and Hanging Maw led the Cherokee delegation.
The representative of the two nations present agreed they trusted
neither the Americans nor the Spanish and drafted a letter to the
government of Great Britain pledging their loyalty in return for the
king's direct assistance. They promised that if this happened, then the
Mohawk, the Choctaw, and the Chickasaw would come over. Nothing ever
came of the petition, but the council is notable for this as well as for
where it took place.
Prisoner exchange
Word of Watts’ defeat at Flint Creek did not reach
Running Water until April 1789, when it arrived with an offer from Sevier for
an exchange of prisoners which specifically mentioned the surviving members of
the Brown family, including Joseph, who had been adopted first by Kitegisky and
later by The Breath. Among those
captured at Flint Creek were Bloody Fellow and Little Turkey's daughter.
Running Water until April 1789, when it arrived with an offer from Sevier for
an exchange of prisoners which specifically mentioned the surviving members of
the Brown family, including Joseph, who had been adopted first by Kitegisky and
later by The Breath. Among those
captured at Flint Creek were Bloody Fellow and Little Turkey's daughter.
Joseph and his sister Polly were brought immediately
to Running Water, but when runners were sent to Crow Town to retrieve Jane,
their youngest sister, her owner refused to surrender her. Bob Benge, present
in Running Water at the time, mounted his horse and hefted his famous axe,
saying, “I will bring the girl, or the owner's head”. The next morning he
returned with Jane. The three were handed over to Sevier at Coosawattee on 20 April.
to Running Water, but when runners were sent to Crow Town to retrieve Jane,
their youngest sister, her owner refused to surrender her. Bob Benge, present
in Running Water at the time, mounted his horse and hefted his famous axe,
saying, “I will bring the girl, or the owner's head”. The next morning he
returned with Jane. The three were handed over to Sevier at Coosawattee on 20 April.
McGillivray delivered Mrs. Brown and Elizabeth to her
son William during a trip to Rock Landing, Georgia, in November. George, the
other surviving son from the trip, remained with the Creek until 1798.
Treaty of Swannanoa
The
next month, on 25 May 1789, the Cherokee were supposed to sign a peace
treaty with the newly federated United States at the War Ford on the
French Broad River, near Swannanoa, North Carolina. The Americans chose
the location because it was scene of a major Cherokee defeat in 1776. The Cherokee leaders never showed, but when the
Americans under Andrew Pickens ran across Cherokee on their way to Rock Landing
on the Oconee River to meet with the Creek, they were assured hostilities
were over
son William during a trip to Rock Landing, Georgia, in November. George, the
other surviving son from the trip, remained with the Creek until 1798.
Treaty of Swannanoa
The
next month, on 25 May 1789, the Cherokee were supposed to sign a peace
treaty with the newly federated United States at the War Ford on the
French Broad River, near Swannanoa, North Carolina. The Americans chose
the location because it was scene of a major Cherokee defeat in 1776. The Cherokee leaders never showed, but when the
Americans under Andrew Pickens ran across Cherokee on their way to Rock Landing
on the Oconee River to meet with the Creek, they were assured hostilities
were over
Doublehead’s war
The opposite end of Muscle Shoals from Coldwater Town,
mentioned above, was occupied in 1790 by a roughly forty-strong party under the
infamous Doublehead (Taltsuska),
plus their families. He had gained permission to establish his town at the head
of the Shoals, which was in Chickasaw territory, because the local headman,
George Colbert, the mixed-blood leader who later owned Colbert's Ferry at the
foot of Muscle Shoals, was his son-in-law.
mentioned above, was occupied in 1790 by a roughly forty-strong party under the
infamous Doublehead (Taltsuska),
plus their families. He had gained permission to establish his town at the head
of the Shoals, which was in Chickasaw territory, because the local headman,
George Colbert, the mixed-blood leader who later owned Colbert's Ferry at the
foot of Muscle Shoals, was his son-in-law.
Like that of the former Coldwater Town, Doublehead’s
Town was mixed, with Cherokee, Creek, Shawnee, and a few Chickasaw, and
quickly grew beyond the initial forty warriors, who carried out many small
raids against the Cumberland and into Kentucky.
Town was mixed, with Cherokee, Creek, Shawnee, and a few Chickasaw, and
quickly grew beyond the initial forty warriors, who carried out many small
raids against the Cumberland and into Kentucky.
During one of the more notable of these forays in June
1792, his warriors ambushed a canoe carrying the three sons of Valentine
Sevier (brother of John) and three others out on a scouting expedition
searching for his party, killing the three Seviers and another of the
expedition, with two escaping.
1792, his warriors ambushed a canoe carrying the three sons of Valentine
Sevier (brother of John) and three others out on a scouting expedition
searching for his party, killing the three Seviers and another of the
expedition, with two escaping.
Doublehead conducted his operations largely
independent of the Lower Cherokee, though he did take part in large operations
with them on occasion, such as the invasion of the Cumberland in 1792 and that
of the Holston in 1793.
independent of the Lower Cherokee, though he did take part in large operations
with them on occasion, such as the invasion of the Cumberland in 1792 and that
of the Holston in 1793.
Treaty of New York (1790)
Dragging Canoe’s long-time ally among the Creek,
Alex McGillivray, led a delegation of twenty-seven Creek leaders north, where
they signed the Treaty of New York in August 1790 with the United
States government on behalf of the “Upper, Middle, and Lower Creek and Seminole
composing the Creek nation of Indians”. In it, McGillivray, who was made an America brigadier general, ceded in the name of the Confederacy the Oconee Country. In return the federal government upheld Creek rights to all of the Tallassee Country.
Although intended to end the Oconee War, it angered the American settlers expelled from the Tallassee Country and Creek who
wanted to keep the Oconee Country, so the war continued. The treaty
also marked the beginning of the decline of McGillivray's influence in
the Creek Confederacy and the rise of that of William Augustus Bowles,
a bitter rival dating back to the Spanish campaign against Pensacola.
By early 1791, Bowles wielded enough influence to send large war
parties raiding the Cumberland once again despite the recent treaty.
Alex McGillivray, led a delegation of twenty-seven Creek leaders north, where
they signed the Treaty of New York in August 1790 with the United
States government on behalf of the “Upper, Middle, and Lower Creek and Seminole
composing the Creek nation of Indians”. In it, McGillivray, who was made an America brigadier general, ceded in the name of the Confederacy the Oconee Country. In return the federal government upheld Creek rights to all of the Tallassee Country.
Although intended to end the Oconee War, it angered the American settlers expelled from the Tallassee Country and Creek who
wanted to keep the Oconee Country, so the war continued. The treaty
also marked the beginning of the decline of McGillivray's influence in
the Creek Confederacy and the rise of that of William Augustus Bowles,
a bitter rival dating back to the Spanish campaign against Pensacola.
By early 1791, Bowles wielded enough influence to send large war
parties raiding the Cumberland once again despite the recent treaty.
Muscle Shoals settlement
In January 1791, a group of land speculators named the
Tennessee Company from the Southwest Territory led by James Hubbard and Peter
Bryant attempted to gain control of the Muscle Shoals and its vicinity by
building a settlement and fort at the head of the Shoals. They did so against
an executive order of President Washington forbidding it, as relayed to them by
the governor of the Southwest Territory, William Blount.
Tennessee Company from the Southwest Territory led by James Hubbard and Peter
Bryant attempted to gain control of the Muscle Shoals and its vicinity by
building a settlement and fort at the head of the Shoals. They did so against
an executive order of President Washington forbidding it, as relayed to them by
the governor of the Southwest Territory, William Blount.
The Glass came down from Running Water with sixty
warriors and descended upon the defenders, captained by Valentine Sevier,
brother of John, told them to leave immediately or be killed, then burned their
blockhouse as they departed.
warriors and descended upon the defenders, captained by Valentine Sevier,
brother of John, told them to leave immediately or be killed, then burned their
blockhouse as they departed.
Bob Benge's war
Starting in 1791, Benge, and his brother The
Tail (Utana; aka Martin Benge), based at Willstown, began leading
attacks against settlers in East Tennessee, Southwest Virginia, and Kentucky,
often in conjunction with Doublehead and his warriors from Coldwater.
Eventually, he became one of the most feared warriors on the frontier.
Tail (Utana; aka Martin Benge), based at Willstown, began leading
attacks against settlers in East Tennessee, Southwest Virginia, and Kentucky,
often in conjunction with Doublehead and his warriors from Coldwater.
Eventually, he became one of the most feared warriors on the frontier.
Meanwhile, Creek scalping parties began raiding the
Cumberland settlements again, though without mounting any major campaigns.
Cumberland settlements again, though without mounting any major campaigns.
Treaty of Holston (1791)
The Treaty of Holston, signed in 2 July
1791, required from the Upper Towns more land in return for continued peace
because the government proved unable to stop or roll back illegal settlements.
However, it also seemed to guarantee Cherokee sovereignty and led the Upper
Cherokee chiefs to believe they had the same status as states.
1791, required from the Upper Towns more land in return for continued peace
because the government proved unable to stop or roll back illegal settlements.
However, it also seemed to guarantee Cherokee sovereignty and led the Upper
Cherokee chiefs to believe they had the same status as states.
Several representatives of the Lower Cherokee tookpart
in the negotiations and signed the treaty, including John Watts, Doublehead,
Bloody Fellow, Black Fox (Dragging Canoe's nephew), The Badger (his brother),
and Rising Fawn (Agiligina; aka George Lowery).
in the negotiations and signed the treaty, including John Watts, Doublehead,
Bloody Fellow, Black Fox (Dragging Canoe's nephew), The Badger (his brother),
and Rising Fawn (Agiligina; aka George Lowery).
Battle of the Wabash
Later in the summer, a small delegation of Cherokee
under Dragging Canoe's brother Little Owl traveled north to meet with the
Indian leaders of the Western Confederacy, chief among them Blue Jacket of the
Shawnee, Little Turtle (Mishikinakwa) of the Miami, and Buckongahelas of
the Lenape. While they were there, word arrived that St. Clair was planning an
invasion against the allied tribes in the north. Little Owl immediately sent
word south to Running Water.
under Dragging Canoe's brother Little Owl traveled north to meet with the
Indian leaders of the Western Confederacy, chief among them Blue Jacket of the
Shawnee, Little Turtle (Mishikinakwa) of the Miami, and Buckongahelas of
the Lenape. While they were there, word arrived that St. Clair was planning an
invasion against the allied tribes in the north. Little Owl immediately sent
word south to Running Water.
Dragging Canoe quickly sent a 30-strong war party
north under his brother The Badger, where, along with the warriors of Little
Owl and Turtle-at-Home they participated in the decisive encounter on 4
November 1791 known as the Battle of the Wabash, the worst defeat ever
inflicted by Indians upon the American military, the body count of which far
surpassed that at the more famous Battle of the Little Bighorn in
1876.
Fighting on the other side were a company of militia from the Washington District of Southwest Territory and Chickasaw scouts.
north under his brother The Badger, where, along with the warriors of Little
Owl and Turtle-at-Home they participated in the decisive encounter on 4
November 1791 known as the Battle of the Wabash, the worst defeat ever
inflicted by Indians upon the American military, the body count of which far
surpassed that at the more famous Battle of the Little Bighorn in
1876.
Fighting on the other side were a company of militia from the Washington District of Southwest Territory and Chickasaw scouts.
After the battle, Little Owl, The Badger, and
Turtle-at-Home returned south with most of the warriors who'd accompanied the
first two. The warriors who'd come north years earlier, both with
Turtle-at-Home and a few years before, remained in the Ohio region, but the
returning warriors brought back a party of thirty Shawnee under the leadership
of one known as Shawnee Warrior that frequently operated alongside warriors
under Little Owl.
Turtle-at-Home returned south with most of the warriors who'd accompanied the
first two. The warriors who'd come north years earlier, both with
Turtle-at-Home and a few years before, remained in the Ohio region, but the
returning warriors brought back a party of thirty Shawnee under the leadership
of one known as Shawnee Warrior that frequently operated alongside warriors
under Little Owl.
Death of the “Savage Napoleon”
Inspired by news of the northern victory, DraggingCanoe embarked on a mission to unite the native people of his area as had
Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, visiting the other major tribes in the region.
His embassies to the Lower Creek and the Choctaw were successful, but the
Chickasaw in West Tennessee refused his overtures.
Upon his return, which coincided with that of The
Glass and Dick Justice (Uwenahi Tsusti), and of Turtle-at-Home,
from successful raids on settlements along the Cumberland (in the case of the
former two) and in Kentucky (in the case of the latter), a huge all-night
celebration was held at Stecoyee at which the Eagle Dance was performed in his
honor.
Glass and Dick Justice (Uwenahi Tsusti), and of Turtle-at-Home,
from successful raids on settlements along the Cumberland (in the case of the
former two) and in Kentucky (in the case of the latter), a huge all-night
celebration was held at Stecoyee at which the Eagle Dance was performed in his
honor.
By morning, 1 March 1792, Dragging Canoe was dead. A
procession of honor carried his body to Running Water, where he was buried. By
the time of his death, the resistance of the Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee had led
to grudging respect from the settlers, as well as the rest of the Cherokee
nation. He was even memorialized at the general council of the Nation held in
Ustanali in June by his nephew Black Fox (Inali):
procession of honor carried his body to Running Water, where he was buried. By
the time of his death, the resistance of the Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee had led
to grudging respect from the settlers, as well as the rest of the Cherokee
nation. He was even memorialized at the general council of the Nation held in
Ustanali in June by his nephew Black Fox (Inali):
“The Dragging Canoe has left this world. He was a man
of consequence in his country. He was friend to both his own and the white
people. His brother [Little Owl] is still in place, and I mention it now publicly that I
intend presenting him with his deceased brother's medal; for he promises fair
to possess sentiments similar to those of his brother, both with regard to the
red and the white. It is mentioned here publicly that both red and white may
know it, and pay attention to him”.
of consequence in his country. He was friend to both his own and the white
people. His brother [Little Owl] is still in place, and I mention it now publicly that I
intend presenting him with his deceased brother's medal; for he promises fair
to possess sentiments similar to those of his brother, both with regard to the
red and the white. It is mentioned here publicly that both red and white may
know it, and pay attention to him”.
The minutes of the council list Little Turkey as “Great Beloved Man of the whole Nation”, Hanging
Maw as “Beloved Man of the Northern Division” (Overhill Towns), and The Badger
as “Beloved Man of the Southern Division” (Upper Towns in North Georgia).
Such was the respect for Draggin Canoe as a leader and patriot
of his people that Gov. Blount, leader of his greatest enemies, remarked upon
hearing of his death that, “Dragging Canoe stood second to none in the Nation”.
Maw as “Beloved Man of the Northern Division” (Overhill Towns), and The Badger
as “Beloved Man of the Southern Division” (Upper Towns in North Georgia).
Such was the respect for Draggin Canoe as a leader and patriot
of his people that Gov. Blount, leader of his greatest enemies, remarked upon
hearing of his death that, “Dragging Canoe stood second to none in the Nation”.
Post-Revolution
phase: the Watts years
(1792-1795)
phase: the Watts years
(1792-1795)
With the death of the great war chief, the Cherokee
needed new leaders to take over, and several stepped in to fill his shoes. One, however, presided over them all.
needed new leaders to take over, and several stepped in to fill his shoes. One, however, presided over them all.
John Watts
At his own previous request, the old warrior was
succeeded as leader of the Lower Cherokee by John Watts, although The Bowl (Diwali)
succeeded him as headman of Running Water, along with Bloody Fellow and
Doublehead. Together they continued
Dragging Canoe's policy of Indian unity, securing an agreement with McGillivray
of the Upper Creek to build joint blockhouses from which warriors of both
tribes could operate at the confluence of the Tennessee and Clinch Rivers, at
Running Water, and at Muscle Shoals.
succeeded as leader of the Lower Cherokee by John Watts, although The Bowl (Diwali)
succeeded him as headman of Running Water, along with Bloody Fellow and
Doublehead. Together they continued
Dragging Canoe's policy of Indian unity, securing an agreement with McGillivray
of the Upper Creek to build joint blockhouses from which warriors of both
tribes could operate at the confluence of the Tennessee and Clinch Rivers, at
Running Water, and at Muscle Shoals.
Spanish
sponsorship
sponsorship
Watts, Tahlonteeskee, and Tsula (‘Red Fox’, aka ‘Young Dragging Canoe’)
travelled to Pensacola in May at the invitation of Arturo O’Neill de
Tyrone, Spanish governor of West Florida. They took with them letters of
introduction from John McDonald. Once there, they forged a treaty with O’Neill
for arms and supplies with which to carry on the war. Upon returning north, Watts moved his base of
operations to Willstown.
travelled to Pensacola in May at the invitation of Arturo O’Neill de
Tyrone, Spanish governor of West Florida. They took with them letters of
introduction from John McDonald. Once there, they forged a treaty with O’Neill
for arms and supplies with which to carry on the war. Upon returning north, Watts moved his base of
operations to Willstown.
Some of the older chiefs, such as The Glass of Running
Water, The Breath of Nickajack, and Dick Justice of Stecoyee, abstained from
active warfare but did nothing to stop the warriors in their towns from taking
part in raids and campaigns.
The
Trans-Appalachian communities formerly of North Carolina became the
Southwest Territory of the United States in 1790. For administrative
purposes, the territorital government grouped the counties in the
Overmountain region together as the Washington District while those in
the Cumberland region became the Miro District, already the name for its
judicial district since 1788.
Water, The Breath of Nickajack, and Dick Justice of Stecoyee, abstained from
active warfare but did nothing to stop the warriors in their towns from taking
part in raids and campaigns.
Southwest Territory Indian War, 1792-1795
The
Trans-Appalachian communities formerly of North Carolina became the
Southwest Territory of the United States in 1790. For administrative
purposes, the territorital government grouped the counties in the
Overmountain region together as the Washington District while those in
the Cumberland region became the Miro District, already the name for its
judicial district since 1788.
Raiding season, spring and summer 1792
Emboldened by the American loss at the Wabash River, Cherokee and Creek warriors
and their Shawnee guests began raiding both districts of the Southwest
Territory. The Miro District had it worse, suffering at least one a
week, often more.
Emboldened by the American loss at the Wabash River, Cherokee and Creek warriors
and their Shawnee guests began raiding both districts of the Southwest
Territory. The Miro District had it worse, suffering at least one a
week, often more.
In April 1792, a Cherokee-Shawnee war party led by Bob
Benge and Shawnee Warrior invaded the Holston region and began raiding the
settlements.
Though
they didn't stop, the raids slowed to a handful in the summer.
However, one of those raids served as one of the most notorious
incidents of the period.
Benge and Shawnee Warrior invaded the Holston region and began raiding the
settlements.
Though
they didn't stop, the raids slowed to a handful in the summer.
However, one of those raids served as one of the most notorious
incidents of the period.
In the summer of
1792, a war party from Running Water led by Little Owl and Shawnee Warrior
joined them in their raids. On 26 June, the same day that Dragging
Canoe was being memorialized at the national council in Ustanali, the
combined group of Cherokee,
Shawnee, and a few Creek destroyed Zeigler’s Station in Sumner County. This action led the governor of Miro
District, James Robertson, to call up a battalion of troops to spread
throughout the region as guards.
1792, a war party from Running Water led by Little Owl and Shawnee Warrior
joined them in their raids. On 26 June, the same day that Dragging
Canoe was being memorialized at the national council in Ustanali, the
combined group of Cherokee,
Shawnee, and a few Creek destroyed Zeigler’s Station in Sumner County. This action led the governor of Miro
District, James Robertson, to call up a battalion of troops to spread
throughout the region as guards.
Invasion of the Miro District
On
7 or 8 September, a council of Cherokee meeting at Running Water
formally declared war against the United States, or at least against the
Southwest Territory.
Watts orchestrated a large campaign
intending to attack the Washington District (Overmountain region) with a large combined army in four
bands of two hundred each. When the warriors were mustering at Stecoyee,
however, he learned that their planned attack was expected and decided to aim
for the Miro District (Cumberland region) instead.
intending to attack the Washington District (Overmountain region) with a large combined army in four
bands of two hundred each. When the warriors were mustering at Stecoyee,
however, he learned that their planned attack was expected and decided to aim
for the Miro District (Cumberland region) instead.
The army Watts led into the Cumberland region was
nearly a thousand strong, including a contingent of cavalry.
nearly a thousand strong, including a contingent of cavalry.
From their launch point, Doublehead’s brother Tahlonteeskee (Ataluntiski) and
Bob Benge’s brother The Tail led a
party to ambush the Kentucky Road.
Doublehead led another party to the Cumberland Road. Middle Striker (Yaliunoyuka) of
Willstown led another to do the same on the Walton Road.
Bob Benge’s brother The Tail led a
party to ambush the Kentucky Road.
Doublehead led another party to the Cumberland Road. Middle Striker (Yaliunoyuka) of
Willstown led another to do the same on the Walton Road.
Watts himself led the main force, made up of 280
Cherokee, Shawnee, and Creek warriors plus cavalry, intending to go against
the fort at Nashville. He sent out George
Fields (Unegadihi; “Whitemankiller”) and John Walker, Jr. (Sikwaniyoha)
as scouts ahead of the army, and they killed the two scouts sent out by James
Robertson from Nashville.
Cherokee, Shawnee, and Creek warriors plus cavalry, intending to go against
the fort at Nashville. He sent out George
Fields (Unegadihi; “Whitemankiller”) and John Walker, Jr. (Sikwaniyoha)
as scouts ahead of the army, and they killed the two scouts sent out by James
Robertson from Nashville.
Near their target on the evening of 30 September,
Watts’ combined force came upon a small fort known as Buchanan’s Station. Talotiskee, leader of the Creek,
wanted to attack it immediately, while Watts argued in favor of saving it for
the return south. After much bickering, Watts gave in around midnight.
Watts’ combined force came upon a small fort known as Buchanan’s Station. Talotiskee, leader of the Creek,
wanted to attack it immediately, while Watts argued in favor of saving it for
the return south. After much bickering, Watts gave in around midnight.
The assault proved to be a disaster for Watts. He
himself was wounded, and many of his warriors were killed, including Talotiskee
and some of Watts’ best leaders; Shawnee Warrior, Kitegisky, and Dragging
Canoe’s brother Little Owl were among those who died in the encounter.
himself was wounded, and many of his warriors were killed, including Talotiskee
and some of Watts’ best leaders; Shawnee Warrior, Kitegisky, and Dragging
Canoe’s brother Little Owl were among those who died in the encounter.
Doublehead’s group of sixty ambushed a party of six
and took one scalp then headed for toward Nashville. On their way, they were
attacked by a militia force and lost thirteen men, and only heard of the
disaster at Buchanan's Station afterwards.
and took one scalp then headed for toward Nashville. On their way, they were
attacked by a militia force and lost thirteen men, and only heard of the
disaster at Buchanan's Station afterwards.
Tahlonteeskee’s party, meanwhile, stayed out into
early October, attacking Black’s Station on Crooked Creek, killing three,
wounding more, and capturing several horses.
early October, attacking Black’s Station on Crooked Creek, killing three,
wounding more, and capturing several horses.
Middle Striker’s party was more successful, ambushing
a large armed force coming to the Miro District down the Walton Road in
November and routing it completely without losing a single man.
a large armed force coming to the Miro District down the Walton Road in
November and routing it completely without losing a single man.
Small parties continued raiding into the winter.
In
revenge for the deaths at Buchanan’s Station, Benge, Doublehead, and
his brother Pumpkin Boy led a party of sixty into southwestern Kentucky
in early 1793 during which their warriors, in an act initiated by
Doublehead, cooked and ate the enemies they had just killed.
revenge for the deaths at Buchanan’s Station, Benge, Doublehead, and
his brother Pumpkin Boy led a party of sixty into southwestern Kentucky
in early 1793 during which their warriors, in an act initiated by
Doublehead, cooked and ate the enemies they had just killed.
Afterwards, Doublehead’s party returned south and held
scalp dances at Stecoyee, Turnip Town, and Willstown, since warriors from those
towns had also participated in the raid in addition to his and Benge’s groups.
Northern concerns
In
early 1793, Watts began rotating large war parties back and forth
between the Lower Towns and the North at the behest of his allies in the
Western Confederacy, which was beginning to lose the ground to the Legion of the United States that had been created in the aftermath of the Battle of the Wabash.
early 1793, Watts began rotating large war parties back and forth
between the Lower Towns and the North at the behest of his allies in the
Western Confederacy, which was beginning to lose the ground to the Legion of the United States that had been created in the aftermath of the Battle of the Wabash.
With
the exception of the 1793 campaign against the Holston, his attention
was more focused on the north than on the Southwest Territory and its
environs during these next two years.
A party of Shawnee came down from the north in January to reinforce ties with the Cherokee and the Creek and
to encourage them to punish the Chickasaw for joining St. Clair’s army
in the north. They stopped at Ustanali, then Running Water, before
proceeding to the Creek town of Broken Arrow, home of their leader Talotiskee who had died at Buchanan's Station.
the exception of the 1793 campaign against the Holston, his attention
was more focused on the north than on the Southwest Territory and its
environs during these next two years.
A party of Shawnee came down from the north in January to reinforce ties with the Cherokee and the Creek and
to encourage them to punish the Chickasaw for joining St. Clair’s army
in the north. They stopped at Ustanali, then Running Water, before
proceeding to the Creek town of Broken Arrow, home of their leader Talotiskee who had died at Buchanan's Station.
The Creek-Chickasaw War began with an attack by the Creek upon a Chickasaw hunting party on 13 February 1793, the Creek fighting as members of the Western Confederacy, the Chickasaw as allies of the United States.
The leading chief of the Creek Confederacy, Alex McGillivray, died in Pensacola on 17
February 1793 and was buried there. The confederacy elected his
son-in-law, Charles Weatherford, in his place.
February 1793 and was buried there. The confederacy elected his
son-in-law, Charles Weatherford, in his place.
Spring and summer campaigns, 1793
A party of Creek undera mixed-breed
named Lesley invaded the Washington District and the recently
established Hamilton District (carved out of the former) and began
attacking isolated
farmsteads. Lesley’s party continued
harassment of the eastern districts until the summer of 1794.
Lesley's group was not the only Creek party, nor were the Creek alone.
Warriors from the Upper Towns and some from the Overhill and Valley
Towns, also raided the eastern districts in spring 1793.
In the Miro District, after the failed Cherokee attack on Buchanan's
Station, the Creek increased their attacks on the Cumberland in both size
and frequency. Besides scalping raids,
two parties attacked Bledsoe’s Station and Greenfield Station in
April of 1793. Another party attacked Hays’ Station in June.
Station, the Creek increased their attacks on the Cumberland in both size
and frequency. Besides scalping raids,
two parties attacked Bledsoe’s Station and Greenfield Station in
April of 1793. Another party attacked Hays’ Station in June.
In August, the Coushatta from Coosada raided the
country around Clarksville, Tennessee, attacking the homestead of the Baker
family, killing all but two who escaped and one taken prisoner who was later
ransomed at Coosada Town. A war party of Tuskeegee from the Creek town of
that name was also active in Miro District at this time.
country around Clarksville, Tennessee, attacking the homestead of the Baker
family, killing all but two who escaped and one taken prisoner who was later
ransomed at Coosada Town. A war party of Tuskeegee from the Creek town of
that name was also active in Miro District at this time.
Peace
overtures
overtures
After the visit of the Shawnee, Watts sent envoys to
Knoxville, then the capital of the Southwest Territory, to meet with Governor
William Blount to discuss terms for peace in order to get him to drop his
guard.
Knoxville, then the capital of the Southwest Territory, to meet with Governor
William Blount to discuss terms for peace in order to get him to drop his
guard.
Blount in turn passed the offer to Philadelphia, which
invited the Lower Cherokee leaders to a meeting with President Washington. The
party that was sent from the Lower Towns included Bob McLemore, Tahlonteeskee,
Captain Charley of Running Water, and Doublehead, among several others. They met at Henry's Station on 4 February
1793, and Blount invited the Lower Cherokee to send a delegation to the capital
to meet with President Washington.
invited the Lower Cherokee leaders to a meeting with President Washington. The
party that was sent from the Lower Towns included Bob McLemore, Tahlonteeskee,
Captain Charley of Running Water, and Doublehead, among several others. They met at Henry's Station on 4 February
1793, and Blount invited the Lower Cherokee to send a delegation to the capital
to meet with President Washington.
Attack on
the diplomatic party
the diplomatic party
The meeting in Philadelphia with Washington was
scheduled for June 1793. On the way, the party from the Lower Towns
stopped in Coyatee because Hanging Maw and other chiefs from the Upper Towns
were going also and had gathered there along with several whites who had
arrived earlier.
scheduled for June 1793. On the way, the party from the Lower Towns
stopped in Coyatee because Hanging Maw and other chiefs from the Upper Towns
were going also and had gathered there along with several whites who had
arrived earlier.
A large party of Lower Cherokee (Pathkiller aka The
Ridge among them) had been raiding the Upper East, killed two men, and stolen
twenty horses. On their way out, they passed through Coyatee, to which the
pursuit party tracked them.
Ridge among them) had been raiding the Upper East, killed two men, and stolen
twenty horses. On their way out, they passed through Coyatee, to which the
pursuit party tracked them.
The militia violated their orders not to cross the
Little Tennessee, then the border between the Cherokee nation and the Southwest
Territory, and entered Coyatee shooting indiscriminately.
Little Tennessee, then the border between the Cherokee nation and the Southwest
Territory, and entered Coyatee shooting indiscriminately.
In the ensuing chaos, eleven leading men were killed,
including Captain Charley, and several wounded, including Hanging Maw, his wife
and daughter, Doublehead, and Tahlonteeskee; one of the white delegates was among
the dead.
including Captain Charley, and several wounded, including Hanging Maw, his wife
and daughter, Doublehead, and Tahlonteeskee; one of the white delegates was among
the dead.
The Cherokee, even Watts’ hostile warriors, agreed to
await the outcome of the subsequent trial, which proved to be a farce, in large
part because John Beard, the man responsible, was a close friend of John
Sevier.
await the outcome of the subsequent trial, which proved to be a farce, in large
part because John Beard, the man responsible, was a close friend of John
Sevier.
Invasion of the Eastern Districts
Watts responded to Beard’s acquittal by invading the
Holston area with one of the largest Indian forces ever seen in the region,
over one thousand Cherokee and Creek, plus a few Shawnee, intending to
attack Knoxville itself. The plan was to have four bodies of troops march
toward Knoxville separately, converging at a previously agreed on rendezvous
point along the way.
Holston area with one of the largest Indian forces ever seen in the region,
over one thousand Cherokee and Creek, plus a few Shawnee, intending to
attack Knoxville itself. The plan was to have four bodies of troops march
toward Knoxville separately, converging at a previously agreed on rendezvous
point along the way.
In August 1793, Watts attacked Henry’s Station with a
force of two hundred, but fell back due to overwhelming gunfire coming from the
fort, not wanting to risk another misfortune like that at Buchanan's Station
the previous year.
force of two hundred, but fell back due to overwhelming gunfire coming from the
fort, not wanting to risk another misfortune like that at Buchanan's Station
the previous year.
The four columns converged a month later near the
present Loudon, Tennessee, and proceeded toward their target. On the way, the
Cherokee leaders were discussing among themselves whether to kill all the
inhabitants of Knoxville, or just the men, James Vann advocating
the latter while Doublehead argued for the former.
present Loudon, Tennessee, and proceeded toward their target. On the way, the
Cherokee leaders were discussing among themselves whether to kill all the
inhabitants of Knoxville, or just the men, James Vann advocating
the latter while Doublehead argued for the former.
Further on the way, they encountered a small
settlement called Cavett’s Station on 25 September. After they had surrounded the place, Benge
negotiated with the inhabitants, agreeing that if they surrendered, their lives
would be spared. However, after the settlers had walked out, Doublehead’s
group and his Creek allies attacked and began killing them all over the
pleas of Benge and the others.
settlement called Cavett’s Station on 25 September. After they had surrounded the place, Benge
negotiated with the inhabitants, agreeing that if they surrendered, their lives
would be spared. However, after the settlers had walked out, Doublehead’s
group and his Creek allies attacked and began killing them all over the
pleas of Benge and the others.
Vann managed to grab one small boy and pull him onto
his saddle, only to have Doublehead smash the boy’s skull with an axe. Watts intervened in time to save another young
boy, handing him to Vann, who put the boy behind him on his horse and later
handed him over to three of the Creek for safe-keeping; unfortunately, one
of the Creek chiefs killed the boy and scalped him a few days later.
his saddle, only to have Doublehead smash the boy’s skull with an axe. Watts intervened in time to save another young
boy, handing him to Vann, who put the boy behind him on his horse and later
handed him over to three of the Creek for safe-keeping; unfortunately, one
of the Creek chiefs killed the boy and scalped him a few days later.
Because of this incident, Vann called Doublehead
“Babykiller” (deliberately parodying the honorable title “Mankiller”) for the
remainder of his life; and it also began a lengthy feud which defined the
politics of the early 19th century Cherokee Nation and only ended in 1807 with Doublehead’s
death at Vann's orders.
“Babykiller” (deliberately parodying the honorable title “Mankiller”) for the
remainder of his life; and it also began a lengthy feud which defined the
politics of the early 19th century Cherokee Nation and only ended in 1807 with Doublehead’s
death at Vann's orders.
By this time, tensions among the Cherokee broke out
into such vehement arguments that the force broke up, with the main group
retiring south.
into such vehement arguments that the force broke up, with the main group
retiring south.
Battle of Etowah
Sevier countered the invasion with an invasion and
occupation of Ustanali, which had been deserted; there was no fighting there
other than an indecisive skirmish with a Cherokee-Creek scouting party. He
and his men then followed the Cherokee-Creek force south to the town
of Etowah (Itawayi; near the site of present-day
Cartersville, Georgia across the Etowah River from the Etowah Indian Mounds),
leading to what Sevier called the “Battle of Hightower” on 17 October
1793. Sevier’s force defeated the
Cherokee soundly, then went on to destroy several Cherokee villages to the west
before retiring to the Southwest Territory.
occupation of Ustanali, which had been deserted; there was no fighting there
other than an indecisive skirmish with a Cherokee-Creek scouting party. He
and his men then followed the Cherokee-Creek force south to the town
of Etowah (Itawayi; near the site of present-day
Cartersville, Georgia across the Etowah River from the Etowah Indian Mounds),
leading to what Sevier called the “Battle of Hightower” on 17 October
1793. Sevier’s force defeated the
Cherokee soundly, then went on to destroy several Cherokee villages to the west
before retiring to the Southwest Territory.
The Battle of Etowah was the last pitched battle of
the wars between the Cherokee and the American frontier people.
the wars between the Cherokee and the American frontier people.
Southwest Point Blockhouse
Built on direction of John Sevier in November 1793,
this blockhouse at the confluence of the Clinch and Holston Rivers was
garrisoned initially by Southwest Territory militia. Federalized and expanded
into Fort Southwest Point in
1797, it then housed a small contingent of fifteen regular army troops that
grew into six hundred forty-five before the agency transferred to Hiwassee Garrison at the modern Calhoun, Tennessee in 1807.
this blockhouse at the confluence of the Clinch and Holston Rivers was
garrisoned initially by Southwest Territory militia. Federalized and expanded
into Fort Southwest Point in
1797, it then housed a small contingent of fifteen regular army troops that
grew into six hundred forty-five before the agency transferred to Hiwassee Garrison at the modern Calhoun, Tennessee in 1807.
Tellico
Blockhouse
Blockhouse
In January 1794, Overhill Towns headman Hanging Maw
requested and Governor Blount approved the building of a blockhouse in which to
station a garrison of federal troops.
John McKee, newly-appointed federal agent to the Cherokee, was stationed
there as well.
Another Spanish treaty
Using
John McDonald, who had remained in communication with Alexander McKee
in Canada, as their emissary, the four nations (Cherokee, Creek,
Choctaw, Seminole; the Chickasaw were left out) negotiated a treaty of
military protection with the Spanish government in New Orleans that was
signed at Walnut Hills on 10 April 1794.
Spring and summer 1794
requested and Governor Blount approved the building of a blockhouse in which to
station a garrison of federal troops.
John McKee, newly-appointed federal agent to the Cherokee, was stationed
there as well.
Another Spanish treaty
Using
John McDonald, who had remained in communication with Alexander McKee
in Canada, as their emissary, the four nations (Cherokee, Creek,
Choctaw, Seminole; the Chickasaw were left out) negotiated a treaty of
military protection with the Spanish government in New Orleans that was
signed at Walnut Hills on 10 April 1794.
Spring and summer 1794
Between January and September 1794, there were more
than forty raids by small war parties of both Cherokee and Creek on the
Miro District. On the part of the Cherokee, these were mostly
carried out by Doublehead. These raids precipitated the Nickajack
Expedition in September which ended the Cherokee-American wars once and for
all.
than forty raids by small war parties of both Cherokee and Creek on the
Miro District. On the part of the Cherokee, these were mostly
carried out by Doublehead. These raids precipitated the Nickajack
Expedition in September which ended the Cherokee-American wars once and for
all.
Meanwhile, his nephew Bob Benge attacked Holston
region and Southwest Virginia, finally losing his life in the latter on 6 April
1794. The militia sent his red-haired scalp to the governor, Henry Lee III, father of Robert E. Lee.
region and Southwest Virginia, finally losing his life in the latter on 6 April
1794. The militia sent his red-haired scalp to the governor, Henry Lee III, father of Robert E. Lee.
Benge was not alone in raiding the Overmountain
settlements. Fifty horse were stolen in
the region that same month. Twenty-five
warriors attacked the Town Creek blockhouse.
An entire family save one was massacred south of the French Broad.
Frustrated
with the governor's call for restraint, John Beard, leader of the chase
group that attacked the diplomatic party, organized a party of one
hundred fifty men in the Washington District and attacked the Hiwasee
Towns, burning two, including Great Hiwassee, and killing several
Cherokee.
settlements. Fifty horse were stolen in
the region that same month. Twenty-five
warriors attacked the Town Creek blockhouse.
An entire family save one was massacred south of the French Broad.
Frustrated
with the governor's call for restraint, John Beard, leader of the chase
group that attacked the diplomatic party, organized a party of one
hundred fifty men in the Washington District and attacked the Hiwasee
Towns, burning two, including Great Hiwassee, and killing several
Cherokee.
Against
orders, George Doherty of the Hamilton District militia mustered his
men and attacked Great Tellico, burning it to the ground, then crossed
the mountains into the Valley Towns, in which they burned at least two
towns and several acres of crops.
On 9 June 1794, a party of Cherokee under
Whitemankiller (George Fields) overtook a river party under one William Scott
at Muscle Shoals, killing its white passengers, looting its goods, and taking
the slaves captive.
Whitemankiller (George Fields) overtook a river party under one William Scott
at Muscle Shoals, killing its white passengers, looting its goods, and taking
the slaves captive.
Treaty of
Philadelphia (1794)
Philadelphia (1794)
The federal government signed the Treaty of
Philadelphia, which essentially reaffirmed the land cessions of the 1785
Treaty of Hopwell and the 1791 Treaty of Holston, with the Cherokee on 26 June.
Of note is that fact that it was signed by both Doublehead and Bloody Fellow.
Philadelphia, which essentially reaffirmed the land cessions of the 1785
Treaty of Hopwell and the 1791 Treaty of Holston, with the Cherokee on 26 June.
Of note is that fact that it was signed by both Doublehead and Bloody Fellow.
End of
Lesley’s war party
Lesley’s war party
In July 1794, Hanging Maw sent his men along with the
volunteers from the Holston settlements to pursue Lesley’s Creek war party,
killing two and handing over a third to the whites for trial and execution on 4
August.
volunteers from the Holston settlements to pursue Lesley’s Creek war party,
killing two and handing over a third to the whites for trial and execution on 4
August.
Two days later, a small war party of Creek crossed
the Tennessee River at Chestua Creek in modern Bradley County. Hanging Maw called up his warriors, fifty of
whom, led by his son Willicoe and Middlestriker of Willstown, joined with
federal troops in pursuit while the rest guarded Coyatee. They caught up with the party they were
pursuing on 12 August near Craig’s Station and defeated them in battle.
the Tennessee River at Chestua Creek in modern Bradley County. Hanging Maw called up his warriors, fifty of
whom, led by his son Willicoe and Middlestriker of Willstown, joined with
federal troops in pursuit while the rest guarded Coyatee. They caught up with the party they were
pursuing on 12 August near Craig’s Station and defeated them in battle.
Different Creek war parties, however, escaped their
pursuers and attacked the Holston frontier for the rest of the month.
pursuers and attacked the Holston frontier for the rest of the month.
Battle of
Fallen Timbers
Fallen Timbers
On 20 August 1794, the Indian army met the Legion of
the United States in the Battle of Fallen Timbers on the Maumee River near
modern Toledo, Ohio.
the United States in the Battle of Fallen Timbers on the Maumee River near
modern Toledo, Ohio.
The Indian force of fourteen hundred led by Bluejacket of the Shawnee, Little Turtle (Michikinikwa) of
the Miami, and Buckongahela of the
Lenape had warriors from those nations and included over a hundred Cherokee,
plus Wyandot, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Potowatomi, Mingo, and Creek warriors, and a
company of Canadian militia under Alexander McKillop.
the Miami, and Buckongahela of the
Lenape had warriors from those nations and included over a hundred Cherokee,
plus Wyandot, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Potowatomi, Mingo, and Creek warriors, and a
company of Canadian militia under Alexander McKillop.
The short battle ended in a complete rout of the
Indian force by the Legion more than twice its size and sounded the death knell
of the Western Confederacy.
Indian force by the Legion more than twice its size and sounded the death knell
of the Western Confederacy.
Aborted invasion of the Miro District
In August 1794, the Indian Agent to the Chickasaw for
the United States sent word from Chickasaw territory to General Robertson of
the Miro District, as the Cumberland region was then called, that the Cherokee
and Creek were about to launch attacks all along the river.
the United States sent word from Chickasaw territory to General Robertson of
the Miro District, as the Cumberland region was then called, that the Cherokee
and Creek were about to launch attacks all along the river.
A party of one hundred was going to take canoes down
the Tennessee to the lower river while another of four hundred was going to
attack overland after passing through the Five Lower Towns and picking up reinforcements.
the Tennessee to the lower river while another of four hundred was going to
attack overland after passing through the Five Lower Towns and picking up reinforcements.
The river party actually began on their way to make
the attacks, but dissension in the larger mixed Creek-Cherokee overland
party caused by the actions of Hanging Maw against the party of Lesley in the
Holston region broke them up before they reached the area, and only three small
parties made it to the Cumberland, operating into at least September.
Trans-Oconee Republic
In
May 1794, Revolutionary War hero Elijah Clarke led a party of fellow
Georgians across the Oconee River to settle the west side, annexation by
occupation. This came about after a French-backed scheme to invade
East Florida fell through. After Clarke and his followers ignored the
governor's orders to leave, a combined force of federal troops and state
militia destroyed their fort and homesteads in September.
the attacks, but dissension in the larger mixed Creek-Cherokee overland
party caused by the actions of Hanging Maw against the party of Lesley in the
Holston region broke them up before they reached the area, and only three small
parties made it to the Cumberland, operating into at least September.
Trans-Oconee Republic
In
May 1794, Revolutionary War hero Elijah Clarke led a party of fellow
Georgians across the Oconee River to settle the west side, annexation by
occupation. This came about after a French-backed scheme to invade
East Florida fell through. After Clarke and his followers ignored the
governor's orders to leave, a combined force of federal troops and state
militia destroyed their fort and homesteads in September.
Nickajack Expedition
Desiring to end the wars once and for all, Robertson
sent a detachment of U.S. regular troops, Mero militia, and Kentucky volunteers
to the Five Lower Towns under U.S. Army Major James Ore. Guided by those who
knew the area, including former captive Joseph Brown, Ore's army travelled down
the Cisca and St. Augustine Trail toward the Five Lower Towns.
sent a detachment of U.S. regular troops, Mero militia, and Kentucky volunteers
to the Five Lower Towns under U.S. Army Major James Ore. Guided by those who
knew the area, including former captive Joseph Brown, Ore's army travelled down
the Cisca and St. Augustine Trail toward the Five Lower Towns.
On 13 September, the army attacked Nickajack without
warning, slaughtering many of the inhabitants, including its pacifist chief The
Breath, then after torching the houses proceeded upriver to burn Running Water,
whose residents had long fled. Brown took an active part in the fighting but is
known to have attempted to spare women and children.
warning, slaughtering many of the inhabitants, including its pacifist chief The
Breath, then after torching the houses proceeded upriver to burn Running Water,
whose residents had long fled. Brown took an active part in the fighting but is
known to have attempted to spare women and children.
The actual Cherokee casualties were much lighter than
they might have been because the majority of both towns were in Willstown
attending a major stickball game.
they might have been because the majority of both towns were in Willstown
attending a major stickball game.
Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse (1794)
The destruction of the two towns combined with thedeath of Bob Benge in April and the recent defeat of the Western Confederacy by
General “Mad Anthony” Wayne’s army at the Battle of Fallen Timbers (at
which over a hundred Cherokee warriors fought) in August, plus the fact that
the Spanish could not support the Cherokee war due to problems they were having
with Napoleon I of France in Europe, convinced Watts to end the fighting once
and for all.
Two months later, 7 November 1794, the Treaty of
Tellico Blockhouse finally ended the series of conflicts, which was
notable for not requiring any further cession of land other than requiring the
Lower (or Chickamauga) Cherokee to recognize those of the Holston treaty, which
led to a period of relative peace into the 19th century.
Tellico Blockhouse finally ended the series of conflicts, which was
notable for not requiring any further cession of land other than requiring the
Lower (or Chickamauga) Cherokee to recognize those of the Holston treaty, which
led to a period of relative peace into the 19th century.
Creek continue the war
The Creek kept on fighting after the destruction of
Nickajack and Running Water and the following peace between the Lower Cherokee
and the United States. In October 1794,
they attacked Bledsoe's Station again. In November, they attacked Sevier’s
Station and massacred fourteen of the inhabitants, Valentine Sevier being one
of the few survivors.
Nickajack and Running Water and the following peace between the Lower Cherokee
and the United States. In October 1794,
they attacked Bledsoe's Station again. In November, they attacked Sevier’s
Station and massacred fourteen of the inhabitants, Valentine Sevier being one
of the few survivors.
In December 1794, a force of Cherokee warriors from
the Upper Towns stopped a Creek campaign against the frontier settlements of
the state of Georgia and warned them to cease attacking the Southwest
Territory's Eastern Districts as well.
the Upper Towns stopped a Creek campaign against the frontier settlements of
the state of Georgia and warned them to cease attacking the Southwest
Territory's Eastern Districts as well.
In early January 1795, the Chickasaw, who had sent
warriors to take part in the Army of the Northwest, began killing Creek warriors found in Miro District as allies of the United States and taking their
scalps. Therefore, in March, the Creek began to turn their attentions away from the Cumberland to the
Chickasaw, over the entreaties of the Cherokee and the Choctaw.
warriors to take part in the Army of the Northwest, began killing Creek warriors found in Miro District as allies of the United States and taking their
scalps. Therefore, in March, the Creek began to turn their attentions away from the Cumberland to the
Chickasaw, over the entreaties of the Cherokee and the Choctaw.
The Creek-Chickasaw War ended in a truce negotiated
by the U.S. government at Tellico Blockhouse in October that year in a
conference attended by the two belligerents and the Cherokee.
Treaty of Greenville
by the U.S. government at Tellico Blockhouse in October that year in a
conference attended by the two belligerents and the Cherokee.
Treaty of Greenville
The nations and tribes of the Western Confederacy,
including the Cherokee, signed the Treaty of Greenville with
the United States on 3 August 1795, ending the Northwest Indian War. The treaty
required them to cede the territory that became the State of Ohio and part of
what became the State of Indiana to the United States and to acknowledge the
United States rather Great Britain as the predominant ruler of the Northwest.
including the Cherokee, signed the Treaty of Greenville with
the United States on 3 August 1795, ending the Northwest Indian War. The treaty
required them to cede the territory that became the State of Ohio and part of
what became the State of Indiana to the United States and to acknowledge the
United States rather Great Britain as the predominant ruler of the Northwest.
None of the Cherokee in the North were present at the
treaty. Later that month, Gen. Wayne sent a message to Long Hair (Gitlugunahita),
leader of those who remained in the Ohio country, that they should come in and
sue for peace. In response, Long Hair replied that all of them would return
south as soon as they finished the harvest. However, they did not all do so; at
least one, called Shoe Boots (Dasigiyagi), stayed in
the area until 1803, so it's likely others did as well.
treaty. Later that month, Gen. Wayne sent a message to Long Hair (Gitlugunahita),
leader of those who remained in the Ohio country, that they should come in and
sue for peace. In response, Long Hair replied that all of them would return
south as soon as they finished the harvest. However, they did not all do so; at
least one, called Shoe Boots (Dasigiyagi), stayed in
the area until 1803, so it's likely others did as well.
Treaty of
San Lorenzo
San Lorenzo
Also known as Pinckney’s
Treaty, Spain and the United signed this treaty on 27 October 1795 setting
the boundary between American territory and Spanish West and East Florida at
the 31st parallel.
Furthermore, Spain agreed to allow the U.S.A. unobstructed use of the
Mississippi River and to dismantle Fort San Fernando de las Barrancas at
Chickasaw Bluffs. Both parties agreed to
cease stirring up the Indian tribes against each other.
Treaty, Spain and the United signed this treaty on 27 October 1795 setting
the boundary between American territory and Spanish West and East Florida at
the 31st parallel.
Furthermore, Spain agreed to allow the U.S.A. unobstructed use of the
Mississippi River and to dismantle Fort San Fernando de las Barrancas at
Chickasaw Bluffs. Both parties agreed to
cease stirring up the Indian tribes against each other.
Treaty of Coleraine
At the trading post of Coleraine in what's now South Georgia, the Creek signed a peace treaty with the United States on 29 June 1796, effectively ending the Southwest Indian War.
At the trading post of Coleraine in what's now South Georgia, the Creek signed a peace treaty with the United States on 29 June 1796, effectively ending the Southwest Indian War.
Assessment
Counting the individual warriors raiding Kentucky in
small parties with the Shawnee from 1775, the Cherokee-American wars lasted
twenty years, one of the longest-running conflicts between Indians and the
Americans, often overlooked for its length, its importance at the time, and its
influence on later Native American leaders (or considering that Cherokee had
been involved at least in small numbers in all the conflicts beginning in 1758,
that number could be nearly forty years).
small parties with the Shawnee from 1775, the Cherokee-American wars lasted
twenty years, one of the longest-running conflicts between Indians and the
Americans, often overlooked for its length, its importance at the time, and its
influence on later Native American leaders (or considering that Cherokee had
been involved at least in small numbers in all the conflicts beginning in 1758,
that number could be nearly forty years).
Because of the continuing hostilities that followed
the Revolution, one of two permanent garrisons in the territory of the new
country was placed at Fort Southwest Point at the confluence
of the Tennessee and Clinch Rivers, the other being Fort Pitt in
Pennsylvania. No less under-rated are Dragging Canoe's abilities as a war
leader and diplomat, and even today he is scarcely mentioned in texts dealing
with conflicts between “Americans” and “Indians”.
the Revolution, one of two permanent garrisons in the territory of the new
country was placed at Fort Southwest Point at the confluence
of the Tennessee and Clinch Rivers, the other being Fort Pitt in
Pennsylvania. No less under-rated are Dragging Canoe's abilities as a war
leader and diplomat, and even today he is scarcely mentioned in texts dealing
with conflicts between “Americans” and “Indians”.
Aftermath
Following the peace treaty, leaders from the Lower
Towns dominated national affairs. Until
then, the end of 1794, there were two rival claimants for the title of
Principal Chief of the Cherokee: Little
Turkey at Ustanali and Hanging Maw at Coyatee, though the “seat” of the latter
was at Chota, the “capital” of the Overhill Towns.
Towns dominated national affairs. Until
then, the end of 1794, there were two rival claimants for the title of
Principal Chief of the Cherokee: Little
Turkey at Ustanali and Hanging Maw at Coyatee, though the “seat” of the latter
was at Chota, the “capital” of the Overhill Towns.
John McDonald, last remaining member of the former
British Department of Southern Indian Affairs, returned to his old home on the
Chickamauga River across from Chickamauga Town, and lived there until selling
it in 1816 to the Boston-based American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.
There the Board established Brainerd Mission. Brainerd served as
both a church (named the Baptist Church of Christ at Chickamauga) and a school
offering both academic and vocational training.
British Department of Southern Indian Affairs, returned to his old home on the
Chickamauga River across from Chickamauga Town, and lived there until selling
it in 1816 to the Boston-based American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.
There the Board established Brainerd Mission. Brainerd served as
both a church (named the Baptist Church of Christ at Chickamauga) and a school
offering both academic and vocational training.
McDonald’s daughter Mollie and son-in-law Daniel Ross made
a farm and trading post near the old village of Chatanuga from the early days
of the wars. Along with them came sons
Lewis and Andrew, a number of daughters, and another son born at Turkey Town,
later to become the most famous, named John.
a farm and trading post near the old village of Chatanuga from the early days
of the wars. Along with them came sons
Lewis and Andrew, a number of daughters, and another son born at Turkey Town,
later to become the most famous, named John.
Cherokee polity
post-bella
post-bella
Peace saw Little Turkey recognized by all as the sole
Principal Chief of a new, rudimentary national government. He and his two immediate successors in the
office, Black Fox (1801-1811) and Pathkiller (1811–1827), had been
warriors under Dragging Canoe. The same
was true for the first two Speakers of the new National Council, Doublehead and
Turtle-at-Home.
Principal Chief of a new, rudimentary national government. He and his two immediate successors in the
office, Black Fox (1801-1811) and Pathkiller (1811–1827), had been
warriors under Dragging Canoe. The same
was true for the first two Speakers of the new National Council, Doublehead and
Turtle-at-Home.
The domination of Cherokee nation by the former
warriors from the Lower Towns continued well into the 19th century. Even after
the revolt of the young chiefs of the Upper Towns, the Lower Towns were a major
voice, and the “young chiefs” of the Upper Towns who dominated that region had
themselves previously been warriors with Dragging Canoe and Watts.
warriors from the Lower Towns continued well into the 19th century. Even after
the revolt of the young chiefs of the Upper Towns, the Lower Towns were a major
voice, and the “young chiefs” of the Upper Towns who dominated that region had
themselves previously been warriors with Dragging Canoe and Watts.
Local
government
government
All the geographic regions had their own councils,
which predominated in importance over the nominal nation council until the
reorganization in 1810 after the council of the Lower Towns that year at
Willstown. These regional councils
assumed more influence than previously when all government was by town, but
they still had no coercive power.
which predominated in importance over the nominal nation council until the
reorganization in 1810 after the council of the Lower Towns that year at
Willstown. These regional councils
assumed more influence than previously when all government was by town, but
they still had no coercive power.
The Lower Towns
in Northeast Alabama, Southeast Tennessee, and Northwest Georgia retained
Willstown as seat of their council, to which John Watts had moved it from
Running Water upon his accession as Cherokee war leader.
in Northeast Alabama, Southeast Tennessee, and Northwest Georgia retained
Willstown as seat of their council, to which John Watts had moved it from
Running Water upon his accession as Cherokee war leader.
The Chickamauga
Towns had had their seat at Old Chickamauga Town, but soon found themselves
absorbed into the Lower Towns.
Towns had had their seat at Old Chickamauga Town, but soon found themselves
absorbed into the Lower Towns.
The Upper Towns in North Georgia had their
regional seat at Ustanali, which doubled as the seat of the
National Council established in 1794.
regional seat at Ustanali, which doubled as the seat of the
National Council established in 1794.
The Hiwassee
Towns in Bradley and Polk Counties of Tennessee had their seat at Great
Hiwassee on the north bank of Hiwassee River at Savannah Ford. They moved into the orbit of the Upper Towns.
Towns in Bradley and Polk Counties of Tennessee had their seat at Great
Hiwassee on the north bank of Hiwassee River at Savannah Ford. They moved into the orbit of the Upper Towns.
The Overhill Towns remaining along
the Little Tennessee remained more or less autonomous, with their seat,
naturally, at Chota. They
gradually lost more influence and prestige until finally they were abandoned in
the advance of white settlement.
the Little Tennessee remained more or less autonomous, with their seat,
naturally, at Chota. They
gradually lost more influence and prestige until finally they were abandoned in
the advance of white settlement.
The Valley Towns in southwestern North Carolina
had their seat at Tuskquitee.
had their seat at Tuskquitee.
The Middle
Towns on the upper Little Tennessee in western North Carolina kept their
regional seat at Nikwasi. After the
treaty of 1819, the only area left to them was the Nantahala River.
Towns on the upper Little Tennessee in western North Carolina kept their
regional seat at Nikwasi. After the
treaty of 1819, the only area left to them was the Nantahala River.
The Hill Towns, now so called rather than
Out Towns, in the highlands of western North Carolina, had their seat
at Quallatown. This area eventually formed the core of
Eastern Band territory known as Qualla Boundary.
Out Towns, in the highlands of western North Carolina, had their seat
at Quallatown. This area eventually formed the core of
Eastern Band territory known as Qualla Boundary.
Cherokee politics in the immediate post-bella era
From the mid-1790’s until the reorganization which
abolished regional councils in 1810, politics in the Cherokee Nation revolved
around the rivalry between the Upper Towns and the Lower Towns. Roughly speaking, the Lower Towns were south
and southwest of the Hiwassee River along the Tennessee down to the north
border of the Creek nation and west of the Conasauga and the Oostanala in
Georgia. The Upper Towns were north and
east of the Hiwassee and between the Chattahoochee and the Conasauga. All of
this was approximately the same area as the later Amohee, Chickamauga, and
Chattooga Districts of the Cherokee Nation East.
abolished regional councils in 1810, politics in the Cherokee Nation revolved
around the rivalry between the Upper Towns and the Lower Towns. Roughly speaking, the Lower Towns were south
and southwest of the Hiwassee River along the Tennessee down to the north
border of the Creek nation and west of the Conasauga and the Oostanala in
Georgia. The Upper Towns were north and
east of the Hiwassee and between the Chattahoochee and the Conasauga. All of
this was approximately the same area as the later Amohee, Chickamauga, and
Chattooga Districts of the Cherokee Nation East.
While the Lower Towns, originating from Dragging
Canoe’s secession, were home to most of the formerly militant Cherokee, the Upper
Towns too were dominated by former warriors under Dragging Canoe. Enmities going back into the war period
provided much of the basis for the politics of this time, particularly between
James Vann and Doublehead.
Canoe’s secession, were home to most of the formerly militant Cherokee, the Upper
Towns too were dominated by former warriors under Dragging Canoe. Enmities going back into the war period
provided much of the basis for the politics of this time, particularly between
James Vann and Doublehead.
By the time of the visit to the area by John Norton, a
Mohawk of Cherokee and Scottish ancestry, in 1809–1810, many of these formerly
militant Cherokee were among the most acculturated members of the Cherokee
Nation.
Mohawk of Cherokee and Scottish ancestry, in 1809–1810, many of these formerly
militant Cherokee were among the most acculturated members of the Cherokee
Nation.
James Vann, for instance, was a plantation owner with
over a hundred slaves and one of the wealthiest men east of the Mississippi.
Norton became a personal friend of Turtle-at-Home as well as John Walker, Jr.
and The Glass, all of whom were involved in business and commerce. At the time
of Norton's visit, Turtle-at-Home himself owned a ferry on the Federal Road
between Nashville and Athens, Georgia, where he lived at Nickajack, which had
itself spread not only down the Tennessee but across it to the north as well,
eclipsing Running Water.
over a hundred slaves and one of the wealthiest men east of the Mississippi.
Norton became a personal friend of Turtle-at-Home as well as John Walker, Jr.
and The Glass, all of whom were involved in business and commerce. At the time
of Norton's visit, Turtle-at-Home himself owned a ferry on the Federal Road
between Nashville and Athens, Georgia, where he lived at Nickajack, which had
itself spread not only down the Tennessee but across it to the north as well,
eclipsing Running Water.
The leaders of the Lower Towns proved to be the
strongest advocates of voluntary westward emigration, even as they were most
bitterly opposed by their fellow former warriors and their offspring who led
the Upper Towns.
strongest advocates of voluntary westward emigration, even as they were most
bitterly opposed by their fellow former warriors and their offspring who led
the Upper Towns.
The Lower
Towns
Towns
The Lower Towns dominated the political affairs of the
Nation for the next twenty years and were in many ways more conservative,
adopting many facets of acculturation but keeping as many of the old ways as
possible. Their leadership was dominated
by the triumvirate of John Watts, Bloody Fellow, and Doublehead.
Nation for the next twenty years and were in many ways more conservative,
adopting many facets of acculturation but keeping as many of the old ways as
possible. Their leadership was dominated
by the triumvirate of John Watts, Bloody Fellow, and Doublehead.
Other Lower Towns leaders were Black Fox, Pathkiller,
Dick Justice, The Glass, Tahlonteeskee, John Jolly (Ahuludiski;
adopted father of Sam Houston), John Brown (owner
of Brown's Tavern, Landing, and Ferry), Tsula (“Young Dragging Canoe”), Turtle-at-Home, Degadoga,
Richard Fields, George Guess (Tsiskwaya, or Sequoyah), Tatsi (aka
Captain Dutch), and red-headed Will Weber (for whom Titsohili was
called Willstown), among others.
Dick Justice, The Glass, Tahlonteeskee, John Jolly (Ahuludiski;
adopted father of Sam Houston), John Brown (owner
of Brown's Tavern, Landing, and Ferry), Tsula (“Young Dragging Canoe”), Turtle-at-Home, Degadoga,
Richard Fields, George Guess (Tsiskwaya, or Sequoyah), Tatsi (aka
Captain Dutch), and red-headed Will Weber (for whom Titsohili was
called Willstown), among others.
Watts remained head of the Willstown council until his
death in 1802, after which Doublehead, moved into that position. He held it until his death in 1807 at the
hands of The Ridge, Alexander Saunders (best friend to James Vann), and John
Rogers, a white former trader who had first come west with Dragging Canoe in
1777 and was now considered a member of the nation, even sitting on the
council. He was succeeded by The Glass, who was also assistant principal chief
of the nation to Black Fox, and remained at the head of the Lower Towns council
until the unification council in 1810.
death in 1802, after which Doublehead, moved into that position. He held it until his death in 1807 at the
hands of The Ridge, Alexander Saunders (best friend to James Vann), and John
Rogers, a white former trader who had first come west with Dragging Canoe in
1777 and was now considered a member of the nation, even sitting on the
council. He was succeeded by The Glass, who was also assistant principal chief
of the nation to Black Fox, and remained at the head of the Lower Towns council
until the unification council in 1810.
When pressure began to be applied to the Cherokee
Nation for its members to emigrate westward across the Mississippi, leaders of
the Lower Towns, such as) spearheaded the way. These men established in
Arkansas Territory what later became the Cherokee Nation West, which moved
to Indian Territory after the treaty in Washington of 1828
between their nation and the federal government, becoming the “Old
Settlers”.
Nation for its members to emigrate westward across the Mississippi, leaders of
the Lower Towns, such as) spearheaded the way. These men established in
Arkansas Territory what later became the Cherokee Nation West, which moved
to Indian Territory after the treaty in Washington of 1828
between their nation and the federal government, becoming the “Old
Settlers”.
The Upper
Towns
Towns
The Upper Towns were the most progressive of all
sections, favoring extensive acculturation, formal education, and modern
methods of farming. They had their own
triumvirate, James Vann and his two protégés, The Ridge (formerly named
Pathkiller) and Charles R. Hicks (whose Cherokee name was
Pathkiller), though while he lived, The Badger remained “beloved
man”. Others Upper Town leaders
were John Lowery, George Lowery, Bob McLemore, John Walker, Jr., George Fields,
and others.
sections, favoring extensive acculturation, formal education, and modern
methods of farming. They had their own
triumvirate, James Vann and his two protégés, The Ridge (formerly named
Pathkiller) and Charles R. Hicks (whose Cherokee name was
Pathkiller), though while he lived, The Badger remained “beloved
man”. Others Upper Town leaders
were John Lowery, George Lowery, Bob McLemore, John Walker, Jr., George Fields,
and others.
Major Ridge (as The Ridge had been known since his
military service during the Creek and First Seminole Wars), his son John
Ridge, his nephews Elias Boudinot (aka Buck Watie)
and Stand Watie, ultimately switched sides to join westward
emigration advocates John Walker, Jr., David Vann, and Andrew Ross (brother of
then Principal Chief John Ross) leading to the Treaty of New
Echota in 1835 and Cherokee removal in 1838–1839. They were known as the Treaty Party, as
opposed to the National Party, the partisans of John Ross, Major Ridge’s former
protégé, resisting removal.
military service during the Creek and First Seminole Wars), his son John
Ridge, his nephews Elias Boudinot (aka Buck Watie)
and Stand Watie, ultimately switched sides to join westward
emigration advocates John Walker, Jr., David Vann, and Andrew Ross (brother of
then Principal Chief John Ross) leading to the Treaty of New
Echota in 1835 and Cherokee removal in 1838–1839. They were known as the Treaty Party, as
opposed to the National Party, the partisans of John Ross, Major Ridge’s former
protégé, resisting removal.
The rest of
the Nation
the Nation
The Middle Towns on the edge of the Carolina Piedmont,
the Hill Towns in the Great
Smoky Mountains, and the lowland Valley
Towns in southwestern North Carolina, with their seat now at Tuskquitee, were more traditional than
the two dominant sections of the Nation.
This was also true for the fading Overhill Towns as well as the Upper
Town of Etowah, notable for being inhabited mostly by full-bloods and for being
the largest town in the Nation.
the Hill Towns in the Great
Smoky Mountains, and the lowland Valley
Towns in southwestern North Carolina, with their seat now at Tuskquitee, were more traditional than
the two dominant sections of the Nation.
This was also true for the fading Overhill Towns as well as the Upper
Town of Etowah, notable for being inhabited mostly by full-bloods and for being
the largest town in the Nation.
Tecumseh’s return and later events
Before beginning his great campaign, Tecumseh returnedto the South in November 1811 hoping to gain the support of the southern tribes
for his crusade to drive back the Americans and re-establish the old ways. He
was accompanied by representatives from the Shawnee, Creek, Kickapoo,
and Sioux.
Tecumseh's exhortations in the towns of the Chickasaw,
Choctaw, and Lower Creek found no traction, the exception being the Upper Creek, and even then only among a sizable faction of the younger warriors,
the Upper Creek headman, The Big Warrior, having repudiated
Tecumseh before the assembly.
Choctaw, and Lower Creek found no traction, the exception being the Upper Creek, and even then only among a sizable faction of the younger warriors,
the Upper Creek headman, The Big Warrior, having repudiated
Tecumseh before the assembly.
There was so much opposition from the Cherokee
delegation under warrior The Ridge that visited his council at Tuckabatchee
that Tecumseh cancelled plans to visit the Cherokee Nation (The Ridge told him
if he showed his face in the Cherokee Nation he would kill him). However,
throughout his time in the South, he was accompanied by an enthusiastic escort
of 47 Cherokee and 19 Choctaw, who presumably went north when he left the area.
delegation under warrior The Ridge that visited his council at Tuckabatchee
that Tecumseh cancelled plans to visit the Cherokee Nation (The Ridge told him
if he showed his face in the Cherokee Nation he would kill him). However,
throughout his time in the South, he was accompanied by an enthusiastic escort
of 47 Cherokee and 19 Choctaw, who presumably went north when he left the area.
Creek War (1813-1814)
Tecumseh's mission did spark a religious revival which
is referred to by James Mooney as the “Cherokee Ghost Dance” movement and was
led by another former Chickamauga warrior, the prophet Tsali of
Coosawatee, who later moved to the western North Carolina mountains where he
was executed for violently resisting Removal in 1838. In Tsali’s meeting with
the national council at Ustanali, many of the leaders were moved enough to
support his cause, until The Ridge spoke even more eloquently in rebuttal,
calling instead for support for the Americans in the coming war with the
British and Tecumseh's alliance.
is referred to by James Mooney as the “Cherokee Ghost Dance” movement and was
led by another former Chickamauga warrior, the prophet Tsali of
Coosawatee, who later moved to the western North Carolina mountains where he
was executed for violently resisting Removal in 1838. In Tsali’s meeting with
the national council at Ustanali, many of the leaders were moved enough to
support his cause, until The Ridge spoke even more eloquently in rebuttal,
calling instead for support for the Americans in the coming war with the
British and Tecumseh's alliance.
This ultimately resulted in over five hundred Cherokee
warriors volunteering to serve under Andrew Jackson in helping put down their
former Upper Creek allies in the Creek War, but only after the Lower Creek under William McIntosh, who opposed the war of the “Red
Sticks”, asked for their help.
warriors volunteering to serve under Andrew Jackson in helping put down their
former Upper Creek allies in the Creek War, but only after the Lower Creek under William McIntosh, who opposed the war of the “Red
Sticks”, asked for their help.
First
Seminole War
Seminole War
A few years later, a troop of Cherokee cavalry under
Major Ridge attached to the 1400-strong contingent of Lower Creek warriors
under McIntosh accompanied the force of U.S. regulars, Georgia militia, and
Tennessee volunteers into Florida for action in the First Seminole War against
the Seminoles, refugee Red Sticks, and escaped slaves fighting against
the United States.
Major Ridge attached to the 1400-strong contingent of Lower Creek warriors
under McIntosh accompanied the force of U.S. regulars, Georgia militia, and
Tennessee volunteers into Florida for action in the First Seminole War against
the Seminoles, refugee Red Sticks, and escaped slaves fighting against
the United States.
Following that war, Cherokee warriors were not seen on
the warpath in the Old Southwest until
the time of the American Civil War, when William Holland
Thomas raised the Thomas Legion of Cherokee Indians and Highlanders to
fight for the Confederacy, though warriors from the Cherokee Nation
East did travel to the lands of the Old Settlers (or Cherokee Nation West)
in Arkansas Territory to assist them in their wars against the Osage during
the Cherokee-Osage War of 1817–1823.
the warpath in the Old Southwest until
the time of the American Civil War, when William Holland
Thomas raised the Thomas Legion of Cherokee Indians and Highlanders to
fight for the Confederacy, though warriors from the Cherokee Nation
East did travel to the lands of the Old Settlers (or Cherokee Nation West)
in Arkansas Territory to assist them in their wars against the Osage during
the Cherokee-Osage War of 1817–1823.
Major
Ridge’s South Georgia foray
Ridge’s South Georgia foray
With one notable exception: in 1830, the State of
Georgia seized land in its south that had belonged to the Cherokee since the
end of the Creek War, land separated from the rest of the Cherokee Nation by a
large section of Georgia territory, and began to parcel it out to settlers.
Major Ridge dusted off his weapons and led a party of thirty south, where they
drove the settlers out of their homes on what the Cherokee considered their
land, and burned all buildings to the ground, but harmed no one.
Georgia seized land in its south that had belonged to the Cherokee since the
end of the Creek War, land separated from the rest of the Cherokee Nation by a
large section of Georgia territory, and began to parcel it out to settlers.
Major Ridge dusted off his weapons and led a party of thirty south, where they
drove the settlers out of their homes on what the Cherokee considered their
land, and burned all buildings to the ground, but harmed no one.
On the “Chickamauga” or “Lower Cherokee” as a separate
tribe
tribe
In 1799, the Moravian Brethren sent a representative,
Brother Steiner, to scout for a location for a mission and school they planned
to build in the Nation, ultimately located at Spring Place on land donated by
James Vann. Upon arriving in the Nation,
he met with former Lower Cherokee warrior Richard Fields whom he had hired to
serve as his guide and interpreter at Tellico Blockhouse. Br. Steiner had been sent south by the
Brethren. On one occasion, Br. Steiner asked his guide, “What kind of people
are the Chickamauga?”. Fields laughed, then replied, “They are Cherokee, and we
know no difference.”
Brother Steiner, to scout for a location for a mission and school they planned
to build in the Nation, ultimately located at Spring Place on land donated by
James Vann. Upon arriving in the Nation,
he met with former Lower Cherokee warrior Richard Fields whom he had hired to
serve as his guide and interpreter at Tellico Blockhouse. Br. Steiner had been sent south by the
Brethren. On one occasion, Br. Steiner asked his guide, “What kind of people
are the Chickamauga?”. Fields laughed, then replied, “They are Cherokee, and we
know no difference.”
Turtle-at-Home gave much the same reply to his new
friend John Norton in response to the same question when the latter first came
south from the Six Nations.
friend John Norton in response to the same question when the latter first came
south from the Six Nations.
In truth, the Chickamauga Towns and the later Lower
Towns were no different vis-a-vis the rest of the Cherokee than were the Middle
Towns, Out Towns, (original) Lower Towns, Valley Towns, or Overhill Towns into
which the Cherokee were grouped when the Europeans first encountered them. The
groupings did not constitute separate political entities as much as groupings
for geographic convenience. The only real government among the Cherokee was by
town and clan, and though there were regional councils, these had no binding
powers. The Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee were no more a separate tribe from the
rest of the Cherokee than were the Overhill Cherokee, the Valley Cherokee, etc.
Towns were no different vis-a-vis the rest of the Cherokee than were the Middle
Towns, Out Towns, (original) Lower Towns, Valley Towns, or Overhill Towns into
which the Cherokee were grouped when the Europeans first encountered them. The
groupings did not constitute separate political entities as much as groupings
for geographic convenience. The only real government among the Cherokee was by
town and clan, and though there were regional councils, these had no binding
powers. The Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee were no more a separate tribe from the
rest of the Cherokee than were the Overhill Cherokee, the Valley Cherokee, etc.
The only “national” position which existed before 1788
was First Beloved Man, which was in reality nothing more than a chief
negotiator from the boondocks towns of the Cherokee farthest from the reach of
the intruders. Yes, after 1788 there was a national council of sorts, but it
met irregularly and at the time had no prescriptive or proscriptive powers.
Even after the peace of 1794, the Cherokee were broken up into five groups: the
Upper Towns (formerly the Lower Towns of western Carolina and northeastern
Georgia), the Overhill Towns, the Hill Towns, the Valley Towns, and the (new)
Lower Towns, each with their own regional councils more important than the
"national" council at Ustanali.
was First Beloved Man, which was in reality nothing more than a chief
negotiator from the boondocks towns of the Cherokee farthest from the reach of
the intruders. Yes, after 1788 there was a national council of sorts, but it
met irregularly and at the time had no prescriptive or proscriptive powers.
Even after the peace of 1794, the Cherokee were broken up into five groups: the
Upper Towns (formerly the Lower Towns of western Carolina and northeastern
Georgia), the Overhill Towns, the Hill Towns, the Valley Towns, and the (new)
Lower Towns, each with their own regional councils more important than the
"national" council at Ustanali.
It should be apparent from the number of times which
Dragging Canoe spoke to the National Council at Ustanali and the fact that he
publicly acknowledged Little Turkey as the senior leader of all the Cherokee,
along with the fact that he was memorialized at the council following his death
in 1792, that the “Chickamauga” were exactly as Richard Fields said, Cherokee.
If that is not enough, there is the constant communication between leaders of
the “Chickamauga” with the Cherokee of other regions, the number of times
warriors from the Overhill Towns and other groups participating in the warfare,
and the number of “Chickamauga” who signed treaties with the federal government
along with other leaders of the Cherokee as Cherokee.
Dragging Canoe spoke to the National Council at Ustanali and the fact that he
publicly acknowledged Little Turkey as the senior leader of all the Cherokee,
along with the fact that he was memorialized at the council following his death
in 1792, that the “Chickamauga” were exactly as Richard Fields said, Cherokee.
If that is not enough, there is the constant communication between leaders of
the “Chickamauga” with the Cherokee of other regions, the number of times
warriors from the Overhill Towns and other groups participating in the warfare,
and the number of “Chickamauga” who signed treaties with the federal government
along with other leaders of the Cherokee as Cherokee.
Scots (and other Europeans) among the Cherokee
The traders and British government agents dealing with
the Southern tribes in general and the Cherokee in particular were nearly all
of Scottish extraction, especially from the Highlands, though a few were
Scots-Irish, English, French, even German. Many of these married women from
their host people and remained after the fighting had ended, some fathering
children who would later become significant leaders.
the Southern tribes in general and the Cherokee in particular were nearly all
of Scottish extraction, especially from the Highlands, though a few were
Scots-Irish, English, French, even German. Many of these married women from
their host people and remained after the fighting had ended, some fathering
children who would later become significant leaders.
Notable traders, agents, and refugee Tories among the
Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee included John Stuart, Henry Stuart, Alexander
Cameron, John McDonald, Clement Vann, James Vann, John Joseph Vann, Daniel Ross
(father of John), John Walker Sr., John McLemore (father of Bob), William
Buchanan, John Elliot, John Watts (father of the chief), James Grant, John D.
Chisholm, John Benge (father of Bob), Thomas Brown, Arthur Coody, John Fields,
John Thompson, Richard Taylor, Alexander Campbell, John Graham, Edward Adair (Irish), John Rogers (Welsh), John
Gunter (German), Peter Hildebrand (German), and William
Thorp (English), among many others, several attaining the status of minor
chiefs and/or members of significant delegations.
Chickamauga/Lower Cherokee included John Stuart, Henry Stuart, Alexander
Cameron, John McDonald, Clement Vann, James Vann, John Joseph Vann, Daniel Ross
(father of John), John Walker Sr., John McLemore (father of Bob), William
Buchanan, John Elliot, John Watts (father of the chief), James Grant, John D.
Chisholm, John Benge (father of Bob), Thomas Brown, Arthur Coody, John Fields,
John Thompson, Richard Taylor, Alexander Campbell, John Graham, Edward Adair (Irish), John Rogers (Welsh), John
Gunter (German), Peter Hildebrand (German), and William
Thorp (English), among many others, several attaining the status of minor
chiefs and/or members of significant delegations.
In contrast, a large portion of the settlers
encroaching on their territories and against whom the Cherokee (and other
Indians) took most of their actions were Scots-Irish, Irish from Ulster of
Scottish descent, a group which also provided the backbone for the forces of
the Revolution (a famous example of a Scots-Irishman doing the reverse is Simon
Girty).
encroaching on their territories and against whom the Cherokee (and other
Indians) took most of their actions were Scots-Irish, Irish from Ulster of
Scottish descent, a group which also provided the backbone for the forces of
the Revolution (a famous example of a Scots-Irishman doing the reverse is Simon
Girty).
It is a historical irony that those from a group seen
as rebels or “Whigs” back home in the Isles became Tories in the Americas while
those from a group now considered one of the most “Tory” in regards to the
United Kingdom became Whigs in the Americas.
as rebels or “Whigs” back home in the Isles became Tories in the Americas while
those from a group now considered one of the most “Tory” in regards to the
United Kingdom became Whigs in the Americas.
Possible origins of the words “Chickamauga” and “Chattanooga”
According to Mooney, the word “Chickamauga”,pronounced Tsi-ka-ma-gi in Cherokee, was the name of at least two places: a
headwater creek of the Chattahoochee River, and the above-mentioned region near
Chattanooga, but the word is not Cherokee. He states that Chickamauga may be
derived from Shawnee, and indeed there is/was a small town on the coast of
North Carolina near Cape Hatteras (noted for a small battle that took place
there early in the American Civil War) called Chicamacomico (meaning “dwelling
place by the big water”), which is also the name of a river in Maryland. Both
these areas were originally inhabited by tribes speaking variations of the
Algonquian family of languages, of which Shawnee is one example.
The Shawnee connection to the area should not be taken
lightly, as the crossing of the Hiwassee River near Hiwassee Old Town in Polk
County, Tennessee, is known as Savannah Crossing, “Savannah” being a corruption
of “Shawnee” as well as the name of the Shawnee village on the Savannah River
from which the river, as well as the city of Savannah, Georgia, gets its name.
lightly, as the crossing of the Hiwassee River near Hiwassee Old Town in Polk
County, Tennessee, is known as Savannah Crossing, “Savannah” being a corruption
of “Shawnee” as well as the name of the Shawnee village on the Savannah River
from which the river, as well as the city of Savannah, Georgia, gets its name.
In addition to the Tennessee city of Chattanooga,
which gets its name from a non-Cherokee word for Lookout Mountain, a community
named Chattanooga Valley in Georgia lies just south of the Tennessee city. There is a community of Chattanooga in Mercer
County, Ohio, possibly a legacy of the Cherokee who lived there and fought
alongside the Shawnee, but more likely a legacy of the Lenape or later Shawnee
who lived much longer in that area.
which gets its name from a non-Cherokee word for Lookout Mountain, a community
named Chattanooga Valley in Georgia lies just south of the Tennessee city. There is a community of Chattanooga in Mercer
County, Ohio, possibly a legacy of the Cherokee who lived there and fought
alongside the Shawnee, but more likely a legacy of the Lenape or later Shawnee
who lived much longer in that area.
True, there is also a town called Chattanooga in the
former territory of the Comanche Nation in Oklahoma, brought to that state by a
former resident of the Tennessee city, Nelson Sisson, and there was once a town
called Chattanooga in Colorado, founded during the Silver Rush in 1883 with the
hope of one day becoming as big as Cripple Creek only to burn to the ground and
never rebuilt, which lies in the later territory of the Cheyenne confederacy of
three Algonquin-speaking tribes.
former territory of the Comanche Nation in Oklahoma, brought to that state by a
former resident of the Tennessee city, Nelson Sisson, and there was once a town
called Chattanooga in Colorado, founded during the Silver Rush in 1883 with the
hope of one day becoming as big as Cripple Creek only to burn to the ground and
never rebuilt, which lies in the later territory of the Cheyenne confederacy of
three Algonquin-speaking tribes.
A logical conclusion from all the above is that both
place-names in Hamilton County, Tennessee—Chickamauga and Chattanooga—derive
from the Algonquin language of the Shawnee.
place-names in Hamilton County, Tennessee—Chickamauga and Chattanooga—derive
from the Algonquin language of the Shawnee.
On the ancestry of Tsiyugunsini
Dragging Canoe, the greatest military and diplomaticleader the Cherokee have ever known, would under the laws of all three of
today's recognized tribes of Cherokee be ineligible for membership of any of
them, and not just because he doesn't have ancestors on any of their rolls.
His father, Attakullakulla, was a Nippissing from the North taken captive
during a raid and adopted, while his mother was Natchez, from the group who
lived along Natchy Creek. He did not have a single drop of Cherokee
blood.
The three Cherokee tribes require the following blood
quantums: United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, 1:4; Eastern Band of
Cherokee Indians, 1:16 (originally 1:32); and Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma,
1:2064.
These blood quantums would also deny former Principal Chief of the Eastern Band
William Holland Thomas and former Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation West
John Rogers membership in the tribes of which they held the highest office.
They are also the means through which the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma
has disenfranchised Cherokee Freedmen from the time of Ross Swimmer
and Wilma Mankiller in the 1980's.
quantums: United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, 1:4; Eastern Band of
Cherokee Indians, 1:16 (originally 1:32); and Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma,
1:2064.
These blood quantums would also deny former Principal Chief of the Eastern Band
William Holland Thomas and former Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation West
John Rogers membership in the tribes of which they held the highest office.
They are also the means through which the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma
has disenfranchised Cherokee Freedmen from the time of Ross Swimmer
and Wilma Mankiller in the 1980's.
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